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2024-03-29T06:50:20Z
User contributions
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https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Waste&diff=658
Waste
2008-11-03T02:18:57Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: </p>
<hr />
<div>It is a “trashy idea”, and yet, it is one with great potential. <ref>Wood, Marcia. "From garbage to gas: converting city refuse and farm leftovers to clean energy.(vineyards to use bioenergy)." Agricultural Research 56.9 (Oct 2008): 13(1). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> '''Don't start sentences with 'this' or 'these'. you do it four times in a row here.'''This is because all forms of life produce waste and therefore, the act of turning waste into energy may prove to be a key mitigation strategy in the fight against global warming. This is crucial because in 2006 alone, the United States produced 251 million tons of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) and although some of this waste is unavoidable, much of it can be reused or recycled. This, however, is not occurring in the United States where 55% of the MSW in 2006 was disposed of in landfills, and consequently, major problems are arising at these sites. These problems include the buildup of greenhouse gases, such as methane; and yet, in these problems, there also lie solutions''' delete this sentence after the semi-colon'''. Waste reduction, as put by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), has the potential to decrease the greenhouse gas emissions that are contributing to global warming, and therefore, we need to act – now '''just state the fact that you say at the beginning of this sentence and then cite it formally.'''. Landfills are creating problems, and yet through waste reduction and waste management, world nations may finally begin to see a viable solution to global warming. <br />
<br />
With a rise in the global population and a prediction for it to only increase further, consumption and waste'''are''' inevitable. Waste is a part of life; however, the traditional landfills, which have been used as sites to store such waste, have also become sites that store greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide '''Try not to put words like however and therefore in the middle of sentences. if you feel like you have to do that, it usually means you should just split your thought formally into two sentences.''' In addition, there is also now less space for landfills, and consequently, the already preexisting sites are becoming overused. There subsequently is a lack of decomposition and ventilation of waste material, and as a result inefficient landfills are being seen in all parts of the world. These are landfills that have also been termed “carbon sinks”, and thus, there is a duel problem at these locations. This is because landfills both store carbon waste and emit carbon dioxide in the air; and yet the solution to this cycle does not lie in producing more waste to capture the carbon gasses that being emitted. <ref>Mann, Michael E., and Lee R. Kump. Dire Predictions: Understanding Global Warming. 1st ed. New York, NY: Daniel Kaveney, 2008. 176 – 177. </ref> Rather, there needs to be a change in the human perception of waste, because only then will these hazardous landfill sites be seen a problem that is not just going to go away. <br />
<br />
Therefore, with landfills proving to be such an imminent threat in the fight against global warming, solutions to this problem can be seen in a twofold answer: waste reduction and waste management. This, furthermore, needs to occur on a global scale, and yet first there needs to be a change in mentality in order to turn a wasteful society into an environmentally conscious one. Such a switch, as a result, would turn the notion of recycling and reusing materials into an attractive alternative, which consequently is a switch that could significantly benefit the planet. Hence, as stated by the EPA, “if just one household generated 5 percent less waste – including newspapers, aluminum, steel cans, and plastic containers – and then recycled what remained, it could reduce 367 pounds of carbon equivalent”. <ref>"Climate Change and Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)." Wastes. 30 Sept. 2008. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 27 Oct. 2008 <http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/tools/payt/tools/factfin.html>.</ref> Individuals, thus, have the opportunity to significantly reduce the greenhouse gases that are accumulating in landfills, and yet, in the last decades, there is also “growing consensus [… among government, international agencies, and companies that now see that] there is money to be made in garbage”. <ref>Gotschall, Mary G. "Making big money from garbage: how companies are forming international alliances to recycle trash for profit." Columbia Journal of World Business 31.n3 (Fall 1996): 100(8). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <br />
<http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref>This is a growing worldview that has led to the emergence of “green” projects, and as a result, efforts are being made to reduce the trash generated, and turn existing garbage into useful byproducts. These are byproducts that include the development of cellulose-based energy, which would create major benefits at a time in which everyone is worried about rising gas prices. Cellulose-based ethanol, thus, is based on “the idea [to] combine household garbage and other urban trash - known as ‘municipal solid waste’ (MSW) – with after-harvested leftovers from fields, orchards, and vineyards to create ethanol and other forms of bio-energy.”<ref>Wood, Marcia. "From garbage to gas: converting city refuse and farm leftovers to clean energy.(vineyards to use bioenergy." Agricultural Research 56.9 (Oct 2008): 13(1). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> It is both friendly to the environment and the economy, and as put by Bill Ortis, this “kind of ‘green’ biorefinery that we’re developing would reduce the volume of existing landfills, decrease the need for new ones, and minimize greenhouse gas production”. <ref>Wood, Marcia. "From garbage to gas: converting city refuse and farm leftovers to clean energy.(vineyards to use bioenergy)." Agricultural Research 56.9 (Oct 2008): 13(1). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> It is a sound byproduct and yet, it is not the only alternative to managing waste, and therefore, coincides with the idea of capturing the methane that is “seeping out of landfills [and using it for] energy production”. <ref>Mann, Michael E., and Lee R. Kump. Dire Predictions: Understanding Global Warming. 1st ed. New York, NY: Daniel Kaveney, 2008. 176 – 177. </ref> These are both managing strategies that would help reduce the large amounts of waste that are being transported to landfills and so “why not burn it for inexpensive energy”. <ref>Mann, Michael E., and Lee R. Kump. Dire Predictions: Understanding Global Warming. 1st ed. New York, NY: Daniel Kaveney, 2008. 176 – 177. </ref> The alternative is to just let the waste accumulate in these landfill sites, and hence, this “large-scale garbage ‘recycling’ may turn out to be a win-win situation for society” and the environment. <ref>Mann, Michael E., and Lee R. Kump. Dire Predictions: Understanding Global Warming. 1st ed. New York, NY: Daniel Kaveney, 2008. 176 – 177. </ref><br />
<br />
Nevertheless, as stated before, in order for waste reduction and waste management to have its most significant impact, such changes will have to be implemented on the global level. This is crucial because these problems with landfills are seen across the planet, and therefore, the United States is not the only contributor to this problem. In fact, as stated in the article “Trash Talk”, “households in the United Kingdom recycle only 12 percent of their waste”; and consequently, the United Kingdom is debating a bill that would “stipulate how much biodegradable municipal waste is eligible for disposal and penalize landfills that exceed their allowance”. <ref>"Trash talk. (Spectrum)." Environment 45.5 (June 2003): 8(1). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> This bill would subsequently create ‘stabilized’ landfills; a term used to classify landfills, which have been screened and removed of “materials that should not be landfilled like recyclables, compostables, household special wastes, electronics ect.”<ref>"Climate Change and Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)." Wastes. 30 Sept. 2008. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 27 Oct. 2008 <http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/tools/payt/tools/factfin.htm>.</ref>This as a result, would greatly reduce the amount of waste being transported to landfill sites, and in addition, will help alleviate the gas build up that has been proven to be a direct contributor to global warming. ‘Stabilized’ landfills consequently have the potential to alter our perception on what we deem as waste; a prime example of this occurring in the city of Indiatuba, which is located in the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil. The city of Indiatuba has already taken the initiative to create ‘stabilized’ landfills, and thus, they are trying to change the statistic that stated that “about 90% of [their] waste was found to be potentially recyclable and only 10% requiring landfills.”<ref>Donnini Mancini, Sandro, Alex Rodrigues Nogueira, Dennis Akira Kagohara, Jonas Age Saide Schwartzman, and Tania de Mattos. "Recycling potential of urban solid waste destined for sanitary landfills: the case of Indaiatuba, SP, Brazil.(Case study)." Waste Management and Research 25.6 (Dec 2007): 517(7). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <br />
<http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref>This is in striking contrast to Japan, which has only about 25 to 30 percent of its waste going to landfills; and consequently, there is “recycling potential” for the city of Indaiatuba. <br />
<br />
At a pivotal time in history in which global warming has become the defining problem of our era, ''garbage'' may in fact be a key mitigation strategy. It can create solutions; and yet, when waste is overlooked, it looses the potential to be a solution and instead turns into a problem. This is a problem that is seen in landfill sites; and thus, societies need to embrace the ideas of waste management and waste reduction. These are solutions to an international problem; and therefore, these ideas are perhaps not so “trashy” after all. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''Try to cut out about half of the 'therefore's, 'hence's, 'yet's, 'thus's, and 'furthermore's. they get a bit repetitive. Also, you might want to check out what other people have done with the organization of their sites. You might benefit from having a few clearly defined sections with labels instead of a long essay piece. Most Wikipedia sites are in this segmented form rather than essay form. Some examples of sections you could have are: Background, Methods, Costs, Risks, and Conclusion.'''<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<br />
<references/></div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Waste&diff=657
Waste
2008-11-03T02:18:19Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: </p>
<hr />
<div>It is a “trashy idea”, and yet, it is one with great potential. <ref>Wood, Marcia. "From garbage to gas: converting city refuse and farm leftovers to clean energy.(vineyards to use bioenergy)." Agricultural Research 56.9 (Oct 2008): 13(1). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> '''Don't start sentences with 'this' or 'these'. you do it four times in a row here.'''This is because all forms of life produce waste and therefore, the act of turning waste into energy may prove to be a key mitigation strategy in the fight against global warming. This is crucial because in 2006 alone, the United States produced 251 million tons of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) and although some of this waste is unavoidable, much of it can be reused or recycled. This, however, is not occurring in the United States where 55% of the MSW in 2006 was disposed of in landfills, and consequently, major problems are arising at these sites. These problems include the buildup of greenhouse gases, such as methane; and yet, in these problems, there also lie solutions''' delete this sentence after the semi-colon'''. Waste reduction, as put by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), has the potential to decrease the greenhouse gas emissions that are contributing to global warming, and therefore, we need to act – now '''just state the fact that you say at the beginning of this sentence and then cite it formally.'''. Landfills are creating problems, and yet through waste reduction and waste management, world nations may finally begin to see a viable solution to global warming. <br />
<br />
With a rise in the global population and a prediction for it to only increase further, consumption and waste'''are''' inevitable. Waste is a part of life; however, the traditional landfills, which have been used as sites to store such waste, have also become sites that store greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide '''Try not to put words like however and therefore in the middle of sentences. if you feel like you have to do that, it usually means you should just split your thought formally into two sentences.''' In addition, there is also now less space for landfills, and consequently, the already preexisting sites are becoming overused. There subsequently is a lack of decomposition and ventilation of waste material, and as a result inefficient landfills are being seen in all parts of the world. These are landfills that have also been termed “carbon sinks”, and thus, there is a duel problem at these locations. This is because landfills both store carbon waste and emit carbon dioxide in the air; and yet the solution to this cycle does not lie in producing more waste to capture the carbon gasses that being emitted. <ref>Mann, Michael E., and Lee R. Kump. Dire Predictions: Understanding Global Warming. 1st ed. New York, NY: Daniel Kaveney, 2008. 176 – 177. </ref> Rather, there needs to be a change in the human perception of waste, because only then will these hazardous landfill sites be seen a problem that is not just going to go away. <br />
<br />
Therefore, with landfills proving to be such an imminent threat in the fight against global warming, solutions to this problem can be seen in a twofold answer: waste reduction and waste management. This, furthermore, needs to occur on a global scale, and yet first there needs to be a change in mentality in order to turn a wasteful society into an environmentally conscious one. Such a switch, as a result, would turn the notion of recycling and reusing materials into an attractive alternative, which consequently is a switch that could significantly benefit the planet. Hence, as stated by the EPA, “if just one household generated 5 percent less waste – including newspapers, aluminum, steel cans, and plastic containers – and then recycled what remained, it could reduce 367 pounds of carbon equivalent”. <ref>"Climate Change and Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)." Wastes. 30 Sept. 2008. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 27 Oct. 2008 <http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/tools/payt/tools/factfin.html>.</ref> Individuals, thus, have the opportunity to significantly reduce the greenhouse gases that are accumulating in landfills, and yet, in the last decades, there is also “growing consensus [… among government, international agencies, and companies that now see that] there is money to be made in garbage”. <ref>Gotschall, Mary G. "Making big money from garbage: how companies are forming international alliances to recycle trash for profit." Columbia Journal of World Business 31.n3 (Fall 1996): 100(8). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <br />
<http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref>This is a growing worldview that has led to the emergence of “green” projects, and as a result, efforts are being made to reduce the trash generated, and turn existing garbage into useful byproducts. These are byproducts that include the development of cellulose-based energy, which would create major benefits at a time in which everyone is worried about rising gas prices. Cellulose-based ethanol, thus, is based on “the idea [to] combine household garbage and other urban trash - known as ‘municipal solid waste’ (MSW) – with after-harvested leftovers from fields, orchards, and vineyards to create ethanol and other forms of bio-energy.”<ref>Wood, Marcia. "From garbage to gas: converting city refuse and farm leftovers to clean energy.(vineyards to use bioenergy." Agricultural Research 56.9 (Oct 2008): 13(1). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> It is both friendly to the environment and the economy, and as put by Bill Ortis, this “kind of ‘green’ biorefinery that we’re developing would reduce the volume of existing landfills, decrease the need for new ones, and minimize greenhouse gas production”. <ref>Wood, Marcia. "From garbage to gas: converting city refuse and farm leftovers to clean energy.(vineyards to use bioenergy)." Agricultural Research 56.9 (Oct 2008): 13(1). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> It is a sound byproduct and yet, it is not the only alternative to managing waste, and therefore, coincides with the idea of capturing the methane that is “seeping out of landfills [and using it for] energy production”. <ref>Mann, Michael E., and Lee R. Kump. Dire Predictions: Understanding Global Warming. 1st ed. New York, NY: Daniel Kaveney, 2008. 176 – 177. </ref> These are both managing strategies that would help reduce the large amounts of waste that are being transported to landfills and so “why not burn it for inexpensive energy”. <ref>Mann, Michael E., and Lee R. Kump. Dire Predictions: Understanding Global Warming. 1st ed. New York, NY: Daniel Kaveney, 2008. 176 – 177. </ref> The alternative is to just let the waste accumulate in these landfill sites, and hence, this “large-scale garbage ‘recycling’ may turn out to be a win-win situation for society” and the environment. <ref>Mann, Michael E., and Lee R. Kump. Dire Predictions: Understanding Global Warming. 1st ed. New York, NY: Daniel Kaveney, 2008. 176 – 177. </ref><br />
<br />
Nevertheless, as stated before, in order for waste reduction and waste management to have its most significant impact, such changes will have to be implemented on the global level. This is crucial because these problems with landfills are seen across the planet, and therefore, the United States is not the only contributor to this problem. In fact, as stated in the article “Trash Talk”, “households in the United Kingdom recycle only 12 percent of their waste”; and consequently, the United Kingdom is debating a bill that would “stipulate how much biodegradable municipal waste is eligible for disposal and penalize landfills that exceed their allowance”. <ref>"Trash talk. (Spectrum)." Environment 45.5 (June 2003): 8(1). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> This bill would subsequently create ‘stabilized’ landfills; a term used to classify landfills, which have been screened and removed of “materials that should not be landfilled like recyclables, compostables, household special wastes, electronics ect.”<ref>"Climate Change and Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)." Wastes. 30 Sept. 2008. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 27 Oct. 2008 <http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/tools/payt/tools/factfin.htm>.</ref>This as a result, would greatly reduce the amount of waste being transported to landfill sites, and in addition, will help alleviate the gas build up that has been proven to be a direct contributor to global warming. ‘Stabilized’ landfills consequently have the potential to alter our perception on what we deem as waste; a prime example of this occurring in the city of Indiatuba, which is located in the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil. The city of Indiatuba has already taken the initiative to create ‘stabilized’ landfills, and thus, they are trying to change the statistic that stated that “about 90% of [their] waste was found to be potentially recyclable and only 10% requiring landfills.”<ref>Donnini Mancini, Sandro, Alex Rodrigues Nogueira, Dennis Akira Kagohara, Jonas Age Saide Schwartzman, and Tania de Mattos. "Recycling potential of urban solid waste destined for sanitary landfills: the case of Indaiatuba, SP, Brazil.(Case study)." Waste Management and Research 25.6 (Dec 2007): 517(7). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <br />
<http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref>This is in striking contrast to Japan, which has only about 25 to 30 percent of its waste going to landfills; and consequently, there is “recycling potential” for the city of Indaiatuba. <br />
<br />
At a pivotal time in history in which global warming has become the defining problem of our era, ''garbage'' may in fact be a key mitigation strategy. It can create solutions; and yet, when waste is overlooked, it looses the potential to be a solution and instead turns into a problem. This is a problem that is seen in landfill sites; and thus, societies need to embrace the ideas of waste management and waste reduction. These are solutions to an international problem; and therefore, these ideas are perhaps not so “trashy” after all. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''Try to cut out about half of the 'therefore's, 'hence's, 'yet's, and 'furthermore's. they get a bit repetitive. Also, you might want to check out what other people have done with the organization of their sites. You might benefit from having a few clearly defined sections with labels instead of a long essay piece. Most Wikipedia sites are in this segmented form rather than essay form. Some examples of sections you could have are: Background, Methods, Costs, Risks, and Conclusion.'''<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<br />
<references/></div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Waste&diff=656
Waste
2008-11-03T02:16:40Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: </p>
<hr />
<div>It is a “trashy idea”, and yet, it is one with great potential. <ref>Wood, Marcia. "From garbage to gas: converting city refuse and farm leftovers to clean energy.(vineyards to use bioenergy)." Agricultural Research 56.9 (Oct 2008): 13(1). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> '''Don't start sentences with 'this' or 'these'. you do it four times in a row here.'''This is because all forms of life produce waste and therefore, the act of turning waste into energy may prove to be a key mitigation strategy in the fight against global warming. This is crucial because in 2006 alone, the United States produced 251 million tons of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) and although some of this waste is unavoidable, much of it can be reused or recycled. This, however, is not occurring in the United States where 55% of the MSW in 2006 was disposed of in landfills, and consequently, major problems are arising at these sites. These problems include the buildup of greenhouse gases, such as methane; and yet, in these problems, there also lie solutions''' delete this sentence after the semi-colon'''. Waste reduction, as put by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), has the potential to decrease the greenhouse gas emissions that are contributing to global warming, and therefore, we need to act – now '''just state the fact that you say at the beginning of this sentence and then cite it formally.'''. Landfills are creating problems, and yet through waste reduction and waste management, world nations may finally begin to see a viable solution to global warming. <br />
<br />
With a rise in the global population and a prediction for it to only increase further, consumption and waste'''are''' inevitable. Waste is a part of life; however, the traditional landfills, which have been used as sites to store such waste, have also become sites that store greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide '''Try not to put words like however and therefore in the middle of sentences. if you feel like you have to do that, it usually means you should just split your thought formally into two sentences.''' In addition, there is also now less space for landfills, and consequently, the already preexisting sites are becoming overused. There subsequently is a lack of decomposition and ventilation of waste material, and as a result inefficient landfills are being seen in all parts of the world. These are landfills that have also been termed “carbon sinks”, and thus, there is a duel problem at these locations. This is because landfills both store carbon waste and emit carbon dioxide in the air; and yet the solution to this cycle does not lie in producing more waste to capture the carbon gasses that being emitted. <ref>Mann, Michael E., and Lee R. Kump. Dire Predictions: Understanding Global Warming. 1st ed. New York, NY: Daniel Kaveney, 2008. 176 – 177. </ref> Rather, there needs to be a change in the human perception of waste, because only then will these hazardous landfill sites be seen a problem that is not just going to go away. <br />
<br />
Therefore, with landfills proving to be such an imminent threat in the fight against global warming, solutions to this problem can be seen in a twofold answer: waste reduction and waste management. This, furthermore, needs to occur on a global scale, and yet first there needs to be a change in mentality in order to turn a wasteful society into an environmentally conscious one. Such a switch, as a result, would turn the notion of recycling and reusing materials into an attractive alternative, which consequently is a switch that could significantly benefit the planet. Hence, as stated by the EPA, “if just one household generated 5 percent less waste – including newspapers, aluminum, steel cans, and plastic containers – and then recycled what remained, it could reduce 367 pounds of carbon equivalent”. <ref>"Climate Change and Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)." Wastes. 30 Sept. 2008. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 27 Oct. 2008 <http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/tools/payt/tools/factfin.html>.</ref> Individuals, thus, have the opportunity to significantly reduce the greenhouse gases that are accumulating in landfills, and yet, in the last decades, there is also “growing consensus [… among government, international agencies, and companies that now see that] there is money to be made in garbage”. <ref>Gotschall, Mary G. "Making big money from garbage: how companies are forming international alliances to recycle trash for profit." Columbia Journal of World Business 31.n3 (Fall 1996): 100(8). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <br />
<http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref>This is a growing worldview that has led to the emergence of “green” projects, and as a result, efforts are being made to reduce the trash generated, and turn existing garbage into useful byproducts. These are byproducts that include the development of cellulose-based energy, which would create major benefits at a time in which everyone is worried about rising gas prices. Cellulose-based ethanol, thus, is based on “the idea [to] combine household garbage and other urban trash - known as ‘municipal solid waste’ (MSW) – with after-harvested leftovers from fields, orchards, and vineyards to create ethanol and other forms of bio-energy.”<ref>Wood, Marcia. "From garbage to gas: converting city refuse and farm leftovers to clean energy.(vineyards to use bioenergy." Agricultural Research 56.9 (Oct 2008): 13(1). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> It is both friendly to the environment and the economy, and as put by Bill Ortis, this “kind of ‘green’ biorefinery that we’re developing would reduce the volume of existing landfills, decrease the need for new ones, and minimize greenhouse gas production”. <ref>Wood, Marcia. "From garbage to gas: converting city refuse and farm leftovers to clean energy.(vineyards to use bioenergy)." Agricultural Research 56.9 (Oct 2008): 13(1). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> It is a sound byproduct and yet, it is not the only alternative to managing waste, and therefore, coincides with the idea of capturing the methane that is “seeping out of landfills [and using it for] energy production”. <ref>Mann, Michael E., and Lee R. Kump. Dire Predictions: Understanding Global Warming. 1st ed. New York, NY: Daniel Kaveney, 2008. 176 – 177. </ref> These are both managing strategies that would help reduce the large amounts of waste that are being transported to landfills and so “why not burn it for inexpensive energy”. <ref>Mann, Michael E., and Lee R. Kump. Dire Predictions: Understanding Global Warming. 1st ed. New York, NY: Daniel Kaveney, 2008. 176 – 177. </ref> The alternative is to just let the waste accumulate in these landfill sites, and hence, this “large-scale garbage ‘recycling’ may turn out to be a win-win situation for society” and the environment. <ref>Mann, Michael E., and Lee R. Kump. Dire Predictions: Understanding Global Warming. 1st ed. New York, NY: Daniel Kaveney, 2008. 176 – 177. </ref><br />
<br />
Nevertheless, as stated before, in order for waste reduction and waste management to have its most significant impact, such changes will have to be implemented on the global level. This is crucial because these problems with landfills are seen across the planet, and therefore, the United States is not the only contributor to this problem. In fact, as stated in the article “Trash Talk”, “households in the United Kingdom recycle only 12 percent of their waste”; and consequently, the United Kingdom is debating a bill that would “stipulate how much biodegradable municipal waste is eligible for disposal and penalize landfills that exceed their allowance”. <ref>"Trash talk. (Spectrum)." Environment 45.5 (June 2003): 8(1). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> This bill would subsequently create ‘stabilized’ landfills; a term used to classify landfills, which have been screened and removed of “materials that should not be landfilled like recyclables, compostables, household special wastes, electronics ect.”<ref>"Climate Change and Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)." Wastes. 30 Sept. 2008. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 27 Oct. 2008 <http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/tools/payt/tools/factfin.htm>.</ref>This as a result, would greatly reduce the amount of waste being transported to landfill sites, and in addition, will help alleviate the gas build up that has been proven to be a direct contributor to global warming. ‘Stabilized’ landfills consequently have the potential to alter our perception on what we deem as waste; a prime example of this occurring in the city of Indiatuba, which is located in the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil. The city of Indiatuba has already taken the initiative to create ‘stabilized’ landfills, and thus, they are trying to change the statistic that stated that “about 90% of [their] waste was found to be potentially recyclable and only 10% requiring landfills.”<ref>Donnini Mancini, Sandro, Alex Rodrigues Nogueira, Dennis Akira Kagohara, Jonas Age Saide Schwartzman, and Tania de Mattos. "Recycling potential of urban solid waste destined for sanitary landfills: the case of Indaiatuba, SP, Brazil.(Case study)." Waste Management and Research 25.6 (Dec 2007): 517(7). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <br />
<http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref>This is in striking contrast to Japan, which has only about 25 to 30 percent of its waste going to landfills; and consequently, there is “recycling potential” for the city of Indaiatuba. <br />
<br />
At a pivotal time in history in which global warming has become the defining problem of our era, ''garbage'' may in fact be a key mitigation strategy. It can create solutions; and yet, when waste is overlooked, it looses the potential to be a solution and instead turns into a problem. This is a problem that is seen in landfill sites; and thus, societies need to embrace the ideas of waste management and waste reduction. These are solutions to an international problem; and therefore, these ideas are perhaps not so “trashy” after all. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''Try to cut out about half of the 'therefore's, 'hence's, and 'furthermore's. they get a bit repetitive'''<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<br />
<references/></div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Waste&diff=655
Waste
2008-11-03T02:15:57Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: </p>
<hr />
<div>It is a “trashy idea”, and yet, it is one with great potential. <ref>Wood, Marcia. "From garbage to gas: converting city refuse and farm leftovers to clean energy.(vineyards to use bioenergy)." Agricultural Research 56.9 (Oct 2008): 13(1). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> '''Don't start sentences with 'this' or 'these'. you do it four times in a row here.'''This is because all forms of life produce waste and therefore, the act of turning waste into energy may prove to be a key mitigation strategy in the fight against global warming. This is crucial because in 2006 alone, the United States produced 251 million tons of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) and although some of this waste is unavoidable, much of it can be reused or recycled. This, however, is not occurring in the United States where 55% of the MSW in 2006 was disposed of in landfills, and consequently, major problems are arising at these sites. These problems include the buildup of greenhouse gases, such as methane; and yet, in these problems, there also lie solutions''' delete this sentence after the semi-colon'''. Waste reduction, as put by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), has the potential to decrease the greenhouse gas emissions that are contributing to global warming, and therefore, we need to act – now '''just state the fact that you say at the beginning of this sentence and then cite it formally.'''. Landfills are creating problems, and yet through waste reduction and waste management, world nations may finally begin to see a viable solution to global warming. <br />
<br />
With a rise in the global population and a prediction for it to only increase further, consumption and waste'''are''' inevitable. Waste is a part of life; however, the traditional landfills, which have been used as sites to store such waste, have also become sites that store greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide '''Try not to put words like however and therefore in the middle of sentences. if you feel like you have to do that, it usually means you should just split your thought formally into two sentences.''' In addition, there is also now less space for landfills, and consequently, the already preexisting sites are becoming overused. There subsequently is a lack of decomposition and ventilation of waste material, and as a result inefficient landfills are being seen in all parts of the world. These are landfills that have also been termed “carbon sinks”, and thus, there is a duel problem at these locations. This is because landfills both store carbon waste and emit carbon dioxide in the air; and yet the solution to this cycle does not lie in producing more waste to capture the carbon gasses that being emitted. <ref>Mann, Michael E., and Lee R. Kump. Dire Predictions: Understanding Global Warming. 1st ed. New York, NY: Daniel Kaveney, 2008. 176 – 177. </ref> Rather, there needs to be a change in the human perception of waste, because only then will these hazardous landfill sites be seen a problem that is not just going to go away. <br />
<br />
Therefore, with landfills proving to be such an imminent threat in the fight against global warming, solutions to this problem can be seen in a twofold answer: waste reduction and waste management. This, furthermore, needs to occur on a global scale, and yet first there needs to be a change in mentality in order to turn a wasteful society into an environmentally conscious one. Such a switch, as a result, would turn the notion of recycling and reusing materials into an attractive alternative, which consequently is a switch that could significantly benefit the planet. Hence, as stated by the EPA, “if just one household generated 5 percent less waste – including newspapers, aluminum, steel cans, and plastic containers – and then recycled what remained, it could reduce 367 pounds of carbon equivalent”. <ref>"Climate Change and Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)." Wastes. 30 Sept. 2008. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 27 Oct. 2008 <http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/tools/payt/tools/factfin.html>.</ref> Individuals, thus, have the opportunity to significantly reduce the greenhouse gases that are accumulating in landfills, and yet, in the last decades, there is also “growing consensus [… among government, international agencies, and companies that now see that] there is money to be made in garbage”. <ref>Gotschall, Mary G. "Making big money from garbage: how companies are forming international alliances to recycle trash for profit." Columbia Journal of World Business 31.n3 (Fall 1996): 100(8). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <br />
<http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref>This is a growing worldview that has led to the emergence of “green” projects, and as a result, efforts are being made to reduce the trash generated, and turn existing garbage into useful byproducts. These are byproducts that include the development of cellulose-based energy, which would create major benefits at a time in which everyone is worried about rising gas prices. Cellulose-based ethanol, thus, is based on “the idea [to] combine household garbage and other urban trash - known as ‘municipal solid waste’ (MSW) – with after-harvested leftovers from fields, orchards, and vineyards to create ethanol and other forms of bio-energy.”<ref>Wood, Marcia. "From garbage to gas: converting city refuse and farm leftovers to clean energy.(vineyards to use bioenergy." Agricultural Research 56.9 (Oct 2008): 13(1). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> It is both friendly to the environment and the economy, and as put by Bill Ortis, this “kind of ‘green’ biorefinery that we’re developing would reduce the volume of existing landfills, decrease the need for new ones, and minimize greenhouse gas production”. <ref>Wood, Marcia. "From garbage to gas: converting city refuse and farm leftovers to clean energy.(vineyards to use bioenergy)." Agricultural Research 56.9 (Oct 2008): 13(1). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> It is a sound byproduct and yet, it is not the only alternative to managing waste, and therefore, coincides with the idea of capturing the methane that is “seeping out of landfills [and using it for] energy production”. <ref>Mann, Michael E., and Lee R. Kump. Dire Predictions: Understanding Global Warming. 1st ed. New York, NY: Daniel Kaveney, 2008. 176 – 177. </ref> These are both managing strategies that would help reduce the large amounts of waste that are being transported to landfills and so “why not burn it for inexpensive energy”. <ref>Mann, Michael E., and Lee R. Kump. Dire Predictions: Understanding Global Warming. 1st ed. New York, NY: Daniel Kaveney, 2008. 176 – 177. </ref> The alternative is to just let the waste accumulate in these landfill sites, and hence, this “large-scale garbage ‘recycling’ may turn out to be a win-win situation for society” and the environment. <ref>Mann, Michael E., and Lee R. Kump. Dire Predictions: Understanding Global Warming. 1st ed. New York, NY: Daniel Kaveney, 2008. 176 – 177. </ref><br />
<br />
Nevertheless, as stated before, in order for waste reduction and waste management to have its most significant impact, such changes will have to be implemented on the global level. This is crucial because these problems with landfills are seen across the planet, and therefore, the United States is not the only contributor to this problem. In fact, as stated in the article “Trash Talk”, “households in the United Kingdom recycle only 12 percent of their waste”; and consequently, the United Kingdom is debating a bill that would “stipulate how much biodegradable municipal waste is eligible for disposal and penalize landfills that exceed their allowance”. <ref>"Trash talk. (Spectrum)." Environment 45.5 (June 2003): 8(1). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> This bill would subsequently create ‘stabilized’ landfills; a term used to classify landfills, which have been screened and removed of “materials that should not be landfilled like recyclables, compostables, household special wastes, electronics ect.”<ref>"Climate Change and Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)." Wastes. 30 Sept. 2008. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 27 Oct. 2008 <http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/tools/payt/tools/factfin.htm>.</ref>This as a result, would greatly reduce the amount of waste being transported to landfill sites, and in addition, will help alleviate the gas build up that has been proven to be a direct contributor to global warming. ‘Stabilized’ landfills consequently have the potential to alter our perception on what we deem as waste; a prime example of this occurring in the city of Indiatuba, which is located in the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil. The city of Indiatuba has already taken the initiative to create ‘stabilized’ landfills, and thus, they are trying to change the statistic that stated that “about 90% of [their] waste was found to be potentially recyclable and only 10% requiring landfills.”<ref>Donnini Mancini, Sandro, Alex Rodrigues Nogueira, Dennis Akira Kagohara, Jonas Age Saide Schwartzman, and Tania de Mattos. "Recycling potential of urban solid waste destined for sanitary landfills: the case of Indaiatuba, SP, Brazil.(Case study)." Waste Management and Research 25.6 (Dec 2007): 517(7). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <br />
<http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref>This is in striking contrast to Japan, which has only about 25 to 30 percent of its waste going to landfills; and consequently, there is “recycling potential” for the city of Indaiatuba. <br />
<br />
At a pivotal time in history in which global warming has become the defining problem of our era, ''garbage'' may in fact be a key mitigation strategy. It can create solutions; and yet, when waste is overlooked, it looses the potential to be a solution and instead turns into a problem. This is a problem that is seen in landfill sites; and thus, societies need to embrace the ideas of waste management and waste reduction. These are solutions to an international problem; and therefore, these ideas are perhaps not so “trashy” after all. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<br />
<references/></div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Solar_Power&diff=654
Solar Power
2008-11-03T02:10:22Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: </p>
<hr />
<div>The Sun provides Earth with as much energy every hour as human civilization uses every year.<ref>http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v443/n7107/full/443109a.html</ref><br />
<br />
There are many factors driving our world in the direction of alternative energy sources, including soaring oil and gas prices, conflicts surrounding these goods, and the impending crisis of global warming. With the seemingly limitless amount of sunshine available to us, solar power is a very attractive and viable energy alternative.<br />
Solar energy is emerging onto the global scene with Japan and Germany being dubbed the most advanced solar power markets in the world. Closely following these two countries are the United States and other European nations. However, due to high costs, solar power still only accounts for 1% of the US’s energy supply (Bigelow), and less than .01% of global energy supply <ref>"Fast Solar Energy Facts." Solarbuzz. Mar 2007. Solarbuzz. 26 Oct 2008 <http://www.solarbuzz.com/FastFactsIndustry.htm>.</ref>. These numbers are far behind those of other alternative energy options such as wind and geothermal power. With such great potential, solar power’s failure to penetrate the mainstream energy market can largely be attributed to economic and political problems.<br />
The two major categories of solar energy devices are photovoltaics and solar thermal. In both cases, the energy from the sun is converted into another form of energy that can be used for heating and cooling purposes, lighting, and the basic generation of energy.<br />
Photovoltaics is the “direct conversion of light into electricity at the atomic level” <ref>http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2002/solarcells.htm</ref>. Using the photoelectric effect, solar panels absorb photons of light and, in exchange, emit electrons, and “when these free electrons are captured, an electric current results that can be used as electricity” <ref>http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2002/solarcells.htm</ref>. <br />
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The most common material used in this process is crystalline silicon, which makes up for 90% of all photovoltaic devices. The other 10% can be accounted for by thin film technologies. Solar thermal uses curved mirrors, called parabolic-trough systems. The use of solar thermal could consist of a singular trough for household purposes, or multiple rows of troughs covering great distances for larger scaled projects. These troughs are tilted towards the sun, allowing the mirrors to focus the sunlight more intensely – a process called Concentrated Solar Power, or CSP. This intense sunlight heats up a pipe full of oil that runs behind the mirrors, which is “then used to boil water in a conventional steam generator to produce energy” <ref>http://www.nrel.gov/learning/re_csp.html</ref>. This method increases the intensity of the sunlight greatly and has the ability to increase efficiency by up to 50%. <br />
When considering photovoltaics, solar thermal, and any kind of alternative energy, one must consider the economic pros and cons that are attributed with each approach. While the undertaking of energy conversion is an expensive and daunting task in the short run, the employment of such strategies has the potential not only to pay for themselves, but also create thousands of green jobs, which would result in economic booms. The benefits of green jobs, especially those concerning solar energy, will be felt globally, spanning all social and economic barriers; estimates show that global “revenue from the installation and purchase of solar PVs will grow into a $69.3 billion market by 2016” <ref>Ridgway, Nicole. "Will Solar Power Ever Go Mainstream?." Smart Money. 11 Feb 2008. 26 Oct 2008 <http://www.smartmoney.com/investing/economy/will-solar-power-ever-go-mainstream-21875/>.</ref>. <br />
Considerable costs, however, remain the most significant deterrent associated with the implementation of solar power. Currently, solar power costs about 30 cents per kilowatt-hour, whereas coal and natural gas cost 5 and 4 cents per kilowatt-hour respectively. These facts combined with intimidating upfront costs have caused many consumers to avoid investing in the solar power market. However, since solar power is a relatively young field, it is also ever improving. Much of the expense of photovoltaics panels is due to the costly production materials; “the high cost of crystalline silicon wafers representing up to 50% of the solar module cost has led the industry to find more cost-effective materials for solar cell production” <ref>"COst-effective power converter for thin film solar cell technology and improved power quality.(Report)." Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 201.1-3 (May 26, 2008): 786(5). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vt. 28 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId+AONE>.</ref>. Much research is now underway to improve efficiency – which currently rests at about 20% for both photovoltaics and solar thermal (uneptie) – while at the same time reducing costs. Prices have declined an average of 4% each year for the past 15 years <ref>"Fast Solar Energy Facts." Solarbuzz. Mar 2007. Solarbuzz. 26 Oct 2008 <http://www.solarbuzz.com/FastFactsIndustry.htm>.</ref>, and due to improvements such as the material change mentioned above, it is believed that “within 10 years, photovoltaic power will be competitive in price with traditional sources of electricity” (U.S D.O.E). Another explanation of this dramatic reduction in price can be explained by simple economics. The market for solar power experiences economies of scale, meaning that as output of solar powered devices increases, the price decreases. This is due to the fact that the high initial costs of employing solar power are being spread out over more and more devices, therefore lowering the cost per unit.<br />
For some purposes, the use of solar energy is already more efficient and cheaper than other alternative energy sources. Especially in remote locations, the use of solar power is practical because the devices are “highly reliable and require little maintenance” <ref>"Uses of Solar Energy." Solarbuzz. Mar 2007. Solarbuzz. 26 Oct 2008 <http://www.solarbuzz.com/Applications.htm>.</ref>. The absence of significant additional annual costs after initial set up distinguishes solar energy from many other alternative energy sources, some of which become more expensive with time.<br />
Governments worldwide have the ability to remedy the economic problems faced by the solar energy market by providing subsidies and tax breaks to consumers. At the same time, however, inaction on the part of governments, and poor legislation can cripple the market.<br />
In light of recent economic problems and concerns about dependency on “dirty” energy, governments are beginning to take their role in the implementation of alternative energy seriously. For example, in 2005 the United States introduced the Solar Investment Tax Credit. In October 2008, the life of this 30% tax credit on the “purchase and installation costs” of solar energy was extended for another eight years <ref>Schmidt, Charles W. "Solar tax credit loses energy.(LEGISLATION)." Environmental Health Perspectives 116.9 (Sept 2008): A380(1). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 26 Oct. 2008. <http://find.galegroup.com.ezproxy.middlebury.edu/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref>. "By passing this bill, Congress has finally given the solar energy industry 'policy certainty' that will attract investment, expand manufacturing and lower the cost of solar energy to consumers" <ref>"Federal Solar Tax Credits Extended for 8 Years ." Green Energy Ohio. 03 Oct 2008. Solar Energy Industries Association. 26 Oct 2008 <http://www.greenenergyohio.org/page.cfm?pageID=710>.</ref>. The extension of this legislation will create upwards of “440,000 permanent jobs and unleash $325 billion in private investment in the solar industry” (Solar Energy Industries Association). Similarly, the German “Feed-In Law” gives tax breaks to customers who use solar generated electricity. Thousands of new solar energy installations per year, and the country’s prestigious reputation in the realm of solar energy, can largely be attributed to this legislation.<br />
The United States Department of Energy is stimulating the solar market by granting a total of $5 million in funding to fourteen businesses in the solar industry. As a result of this funding, it is expected that 1,000 solar roofs will be installed across the country <ref>"Solar ventures draw $5M in federal funding." Power Engineering 102.n6 (June 1998): 11(1). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vt. 28 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start/do?prodId=AONE>.</ref>.<br />
While most governments are well intentioned when it comes to alternative energy implementation, solar power still faces some politically-imposed barriers. California’s Clean Energy Initiative contains one such hidden obstacle. According to Sue Kately, although the CEI would “require 50% of energy from renewables by 2050,” it would also “effectively kill the state’s solar sector by disqualifying any project under 30 megawatts,” which includes most household solar projects <ref>http://news.cnet.com/8301-11128_3-9939715-54.html</ref>.<br />
Governmental action and support is key for any alternative source of energy, because without tax breaks and subsidies, many projects are simply too expensive to undertake. With government subsidies reducing the costs of solar power, it can be employed on any scale and can be efficient for use in single households as well as large solar cell plants that provide energy to a network of individual houses and buildings. Depending on one’s expectations and purposes for solar energy, the possible scale of a project can be extremely varied.<br />
The employment of solar power technology can occur nearly anywhere. Any location that receives a steady amount of sunlight can be utilized for solar energy purposes. Logically, areas with more intense and longer lasting sunlight would be ideal. Such factors depend on the latitude of the location and also the typical weather of the region. As shown on this map, the Southwestern United States, Northern Africa and parts of the Middle East on average receive the most sunlight whereas much of the oceans in the Southern Hemisphere receive much less sunlight.<br />
<br />
<ref>http://earth.rice.edu/MTPE/geo/geosphere/hot/energyfuture/Sunlight.html</ref><br />
The use of solar energy is very practical in remote areas that cannot connect to traditional electricity grids. Although solar energy would generally be the cheapest variety of energy for these locations (because they need not connect to grids thousands of miles away), with installation costs averaging between US $400 and $600, inhabitants of these regions generally cannot afford solar systems.<br />
In this way, solar power has the potential to revolutionize the culture and way of life of now underdeveloped societies. By providing electricity for lighting and the purification and heating of water, many lives could be drastically changed by solar power. This further demonstrates the importance of reducing cost and increasing efficiency in solar energy devices.<br />
As governments expand their roles in promoting and improving solar systems, the practicality of solar energy is beginning to catch up with the potential benefits that can be reaped from it. An ever-changing and ever-improving area, solar energy is capable of eliminating our dependency on foreign oils and forms of energy that is harmful to our environment. <br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
'''You have good info, but I'm confused about how you want to organize this! When it's in a big paragraph the reader usually starts to skim. Try checking out what other people have done with the organization of their sites. You might benefit from having a few clearly defined sections with labels instead of a long essay piece. Most Wikipedia sites are in this segmented form rather than essay form. Some examples of sections you could have are: Background, Methods, Costs, Risks, and Conclusion. '''<br />
<br />
<references/></div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Nuclear_Energy&diff=653
Nuclear Energy
2008-11-03T02:06:07Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: /* Creation of Nuclear Energy */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Overview==<br />
As the world discusses possible topics about new energy development and substitutions for coal and oil, the topic of nuclear power comes into conversation. Analysis of current energy usage worldwide and concern for global warming reveals a challenge for current and future energy consumers: Implement nuclear power usage because of its non production of CO2 in a movement to mitigate global warming or continue using Coal and Oil plants because of our current dependence and because of our current technology and its dependence on coal and oil.<br />
Nuclear power is a technology where energy is harvested from the atomic nuclei by controlled nuclear reactions. As of today about 15% of the world’s electricity is supplied by nuclear power.<ref name="market">The Market Oracle, France is Still a Nuclear Power Global Leader, © 2007 Elliott H. Gue<br />
[http://www.marketoracle.co.uk/Article1160.html Link: www.marketoracle.co.uk/Article1160.html]</ref> Currently there are about 439 nuclear power reactors in operation in 31 countries and about 83 more nuclear power reactors in construction.<ref name="market"/> <br />
==Creation of Nuclear Energy==<br />
Nuclear energy is produced when the nuclei of atoms of elements are either split or combined. The two main ways that nuclear energy can be harvested is through nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. During the process of nuclear fission, the nuclei of atoms are split. The preferred element to be used in this process is Uranium because of its simple separation ability.<ref name="society">Nuclear Energy & Society, Worldwide Benefits, Ilan Lipper & Jon Stone<br />
[http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/nuclear.htm Link: www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/nuclear.htm ]</ref> Shooting neutrons at Uranium atoms causes their nuclei to split, releasing not only energy but other neutrons that will penetrate other nearby Uranium atoms.<ref name="society"/> This is known as a Chain Reaction. The second process, nuclear fusion occurs when atoms join together, or fuse. Extremely hot conditions are favored for the fusion of hydrogen nuclei to form helium atoms. These combinations cause explosions thus releasing huge amounts of energy.<ref name="society"/> In both these processes this energy can be harvested for supplying electricity or for the creation of nuclear weapons, such as the hydrogen bomb.<br />
<br />
'''Expand this section a bit more. You talk a lot about the politics, risks, and economics of nuclear energy, but I'm still a bit confused at to what it is. Maybe add some info on the history of nuclear energy, how power plants work, etc.'''<br />
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==Cost and Economics==<br />
Cost is always a factor when dealing with an issue that will influence every major economy of the world, and cost certainly does play a role when deciding “What’s more cost effective a nuclear power plant or our current coal plants?” '''Obvious statement in first sentence. Start with second sentence.'''When dealing first with the construction of these two plants, Nuclear power plants '''cost more to build than traditional coal power plants. The cost of construction for nuclear plants is higher because of the use of containment buildings and ''' safety-related equipment that must meet higher standards than the traditional structures. The highest costly coal plant currently is the controversial Alliant Energy's coal plant that will cost an amount of about $1.2 billion dollars to build. While most Nuclear power plants cost between 3 and 5 billion dollars to construct only. '''didn't you just say that nuclear power plants would cost more?'''<ref name="cost"> '''Economics of new nuclear power plants, Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.,<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_new_nuclear_power_plants Link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_new_nuclear_power_plants]</ref> In general, coal and nuclear plants have the same types of operating costs, maintenance cost and fuel costs. The biggest difference in cost is the price of fuel. Currently the cost of uranium is only at a fraction of the cost of fuel for coal and oil plants.<ref name="cost"/> Several other economic issues exist when dealing with the creation, maintenance and disposal of nuclear power plants. First of all it takes approximately 4-6 years to construct a nuclear power plant, with its biggest downfall not being cost but delay.<ref name="cost"/> The more delays that occur during the creation process means the longer waiting time for companies to receive revenue. Nuclear power plants must also have insurance in case of a nuclear or radiological incident enforced by the Price-Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act.<ref name="cost"/> Each power plant must in total have insurance worth $10 billion.<ref name="cost"/> At the end of a power plant’s lifetime, roughly about 50-60 years, dismantling and decommissioning must occur. Whereas in the United States, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission requires that the plant put money aside during its operating years for its decommissioning that could entail a cost of $300 million.<ref name="cost"/> In an effort to mitigate global warming, the economics of nuclear power may be favored compared to current measures to mitigate global warming, such as carbon taxing, since the use of nuclear power does create CO2.<br />
<br />
==Politics of Nuclear Power==<br />
The politics of nuclear power harvesting have great effects on whether or not the plants will even operate. Although the U.S has the most nuclear reactors and produces the most electricity from nuclear energy, anti-nuclear movements did halt the creation and construction of new nuclear plants throughout the country. Currently there is one nuclear reactor under construction, beginning in 2003. But despite many opposition movements throughout the world, many nations are seeing the benefits that nuclear energy is producing as both an electricity generator and as a replacement to coal and oil power plants. Many countries find that their efforts to find other ways to harvest energy especially nuclear are efforts to mitigate global warming. As of today countries like Japan use nuclear energy that produces about 30% of their electricity.<ref name="politics">Nuclear Politics, John McCarthy , August 2007 <br />
[http://www.www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/nuclear-politics.html.com Link: http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/nuclear-politics.html]<br />
</ref> More than half of Belgium’s electricity is nuclear. China’s nuclear program is beginning to increase and India is currently constructing several nuclear power plants. Despite the benefits that these countries have had with nuclear energy, in just as many cases anti-nuclear movements have won the battle. In Germany, social democrats working together with the green party had opposed nuclear energy and proposed to close the remaining power plants but are currently being reviewed and in Austria where a power plant was built but was never operated because of a vote by its citizens.<ref name="politics"/><br />
France, for example, the world leader in nuclear exporting currently receives about 87.5 % of its electricity from nuclear energy '''reread this sentence for clarity'''.<ref name="market"/> The switch from coal and oil to nuclear energy has produced 18% less greenhouse gas per person, whereas switching back to coal and oil would actually increase greenhouse gas emissions to 25%. France currently has in operation 59 power plants producing a surplus in energy which it exports to surrounding countries such as Germany, Italy, Spain and others.<ref name="market"/> Nuclear power has also played significant negative roles in France where in July of 2008, 18,000 liters of solution containing Uranium where accidently released by Tricastin Nuclear Power Center. French authorities have banned the use of water from the Gaffière and Lauzon for drinking and watering of crops. Swimming, water sports and fishing were also banned. Approximately 100 employees have been documented to have suffered from some illness due to the exposure of radioactive particles that had escaped from a pipe.<ref name="market"/> This reactor has currently been shut down. Despite this accident, France is still in full production with its nuclear power plants, and I believe that France’s current usage of nuclear energy is a great advancement towards mitigation of global warming '''don't use I. also, be a bit more clear as to why nuclear power in France is still good even though you just said 100 employees were hurt by it.'''.<br />
<br />
==Risk Analysis==<br />
While analyzing the many potential benefits that nuclear energy can have on our daily lives, one can certainly overlook the negative aspects and hazards that such energy can produce. The greatest major risks that these power plants and storage tanks have are the potential of spawning deadly radioactivity. In the fall of 1957, fire was responsible for the melting of several plutonium reactors in Britain’s Sellafield complex, spewing clouds of radioactivity into the atmosphere.<ref name="acc">Major Nuclear Power Plant Accidents, AJ Software & Multimedia © Copyright 1998-2008, [http://www.atomicarchive.com/Reports/Japan/Accidents.shtml Link: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Reports/Japan/Accidents.shtml]</ref> An official document shows that the radiation leakage could be responsible for dozens of caner deaths that soon followed. One of the worst disasters in nuclear power harvesting history occurred in Chernobyl, Ukraine in April of 1986.<ref name="chacc">Chernobyl Accident, World Nuclear Association, Carlton House, 22a St James's Square, London, SW1Y 4JH, UK, [http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/chernobyl/inf07.html Link: http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/chernobyl/inf07.html]</ref>Due to the faulty construction of a nuclear reactor caused it to literally explode. The effects of the explosion were numerous and evident that nuclear power has extremely horrendous side effects. The initial explosion killed two workers instantly but most deaths are considered to be part of the remaining fallout. In total, an official count of 56 deaths has been linked to be caused by cancer and as a consequence to the exposure to radiation.<ref name="chacc"/> Estimations show that there may be about 4,000 more deaths occurring because of radiation induced cancer out of the estimated 600,000 people that were exposed.<ref name="chacc"/> Many areas surrounding the Chernobyl site still remain off limits because of traces of radiation that thrives. This massive release of radioactivity not only had the potential to affect humans while breathing but by ingestion of food and drinks because of the contamination of water that was used for crops, that were then used to feed livestock, and that soon found its way to their dinner table and into their system. The fear of radiation poisoning lingered throughout the public because of the much contamination of products necessary for daily living, and the uncertainty of what really was contaminated and what was not. When dealing with nuclear energy I believe the one thing that we must have in mind is the proper construction and aftercare of these plants because as evident by past events their negative turnouts are nothing short of disastrous. <br />
<br />
[[Image:300px-Chernobyl_Disaster.jpg]]<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Many of these numerous disasters are what have halted the creation and expansion of nuclear power harvesting but in reality these problems could have been avoided with careful supervision over their creation and stronger technology. Despite the issues that may arise from the movement to nuclear energy, I believe its benefits further exceed its negative aspects. In my opinion nuclear power is not the only resource that is currently available to us that allows us to escape the byproduct of CO2, and whether nuclear power becomes the “thing” of the future, the bottom line is that it’s helping to mitigate global warming now.<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/> <br />
<br />
The Market Oracle, France is Still a Nuclear Power Global Leader, © 2007 Elliott H. Gue<br />
[http://www.marketoracle.co.uk/Article1160.html Link: www.marketoracle.co.uk/Article1160.html]<br />
<br />
Nuclear Energy & Society, Worldwide Benefits, Ilan Lipper & Jon Stone<br />
[http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/nuclear.htm Link: www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/nuclear.htm ]<br />
<br />
Nuclear Politics, John McCarthy , August 2007 <br />
[http://www.www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/nuclear-politics.html.com Link: http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/nuclear-politics.html]<br />
<br />
Economics of new nuclear power plants, Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.,<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_new_nuclear_power_plants Link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_new_nuclear_power_plants]<br />
<br />
Projected cost for new Alliant coal plant soars past $1 billion, The Capital Times © 2008, [http://www.madison.com/tct/business/291631 Link: http://www.madison.com/tct/business/291631]<br />
<br />
Chernobyl Accident, World Nuclear Association, Carlton House, 22a St James's Square, London, SW1Y 4JH, UK, [http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/chernobyl/inf07.html Link: http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/chernobyl/inf07.html]<br />
<br />
Major Nuclear Power Plant Accidents, AJ Software & Multimedia © Copyright 1998-2008, [http://www.atomicarchive.com/Reports/Japan/Accidents.shtml Link: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Reports/Japan/Accidents.shtml]</div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Nuclear_Energy&diff=652
Nuclear Energy
2008-11-03T02:04:53Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: /* Politics of Nuclear Power */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Overview==<br />
As the world discusses possible topics about new energy development and substitutions for coal and oil, the topic of nuclear power comes into conversation. Analysis of current energy usage worldwide and concern for global warming reveals a challenge for current and future energy consumers: Implement nuclear power usage because of its non production of CO2 in a movement to mitigate global warming or continue using Coal and Oil plants because of our current dependence and because of our current technology and its dependence on coal and oil.<br />
Nuclear power is a technology where energy is harvested from the atomic nuclei by controlled nuclear reactions. As of today about 15% of the world’s electricity is supplied by nuclear power.<ref name="market">The Market Oracle, France is Still a Nuclear Power Global Leader, © 2007 Elliott H. Gue<br />
[http://www.marketoracle.co.uk/Article1160.html Link: www.marketoracle.co.uk/Article1160.html]</ref> Currently there are about 439 nuclear power reactors in operation in 31 countries and about 83 more nuclear power reactors in construction.<ref name="market"/> <br />
==Creation of Nuclear Energy==<br />
Nuclear energy is produced when the nuclei of atoms of elements are either split or combined. The two main ways that nuclear energy can be harvested is through nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. During the process of nuclear fission, the nuclei of atoms are split. The preferred element to be used in this process is Uranium because of its simple separation ability.<ref name="society">Nuclear Energy & Society, Worldwide Benefits, Ilan Lipper & Jon Stone<br />
[http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/nuclear.htm Link: www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/nuclear.htm ]</ref> Shooting neutrons at Uranium atoms causes their nuclei to split, releasing not only energy but other neutrons that will penetrate other nearby Uranium atoms.<ref name="society"/> This is known as a Chain Reaction. The second process, nuclear fusion occurs when atoms join together, or fuse. Extremely hot conditions are favored for the fusion of hydrogen nuclei to form helium atoms. These combinations cause explosions thus releasing huge amounts of energy.<ref name="society"/> In both these processes this energy can be harvested for supplying electricity or for the creation of nuclear weapons, such as the hydrogen bomb.<br />
==Cost and Economics==<br />
Cost is always a factor when dealing with an issue that will influence every major economy of the world, and cost certainly does play a role when deciding “What’s more cost effective a nuclear power plant or our current coal plants?” '''Obvious statement in first sentence. Start with second sentence.'''When dealing first with the construction of these two plants, Nuclear power plants '''cost more to build than traditional coal power plants. The cost of construction for nuclear plants is higher because of the use of containment buildings and ''' safety-related equipment that must meet higher standards than the traditional structures. The highest costly coal plant currently is the controversial Alliant Energy's coal plant that will cost an amount of about $1.2 billion dollars to build. While most Nuclear power plants cost between 3 and 5 billion dollars to construct only. '''didn't you just say that nuclear power plants would cost more?'''<ref name="cost"> '''Economics of new nuclear power plants, Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.,<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_new_nuclear_power_plants Link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_new_nuclear_power_plants]</ref> In general, coal and nuclear plants have the same types of operating costs, maintenance cost and fuel costs. The biggest difference in cost is the price of fuel. Currently the cost of uranium is only at a fraction of the cost of fuel for coal and oil plants.<ref name="cost"/> Several other economic issues exist when dealing with the creation, maintenance and disposal of nuclear power plants. First of all it takes approximately 4-6 years to construct a nuclear power plant, with its biggest downfall not being cost but delay.<ref name="cost"/> The more delays that occur during the creation process means the longer waiting time for companies to receive revenue. Nuclear power plants must also have insurance in case of a nuclear or radiological incident enforced by the Price-Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act.<ref name="cost"/> Each power plant must in total have insurance worth $10 billion.<ref name="cost"/> At the end of a power plant’s lifetime, roughly about 50-60 years, dismantling and decommissioning must occur. Whereas in the United States, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission requires that the plant put money aside during its operating years for its decommissioning that could entail a cost of $300 million.<ref name="cost"/> In an effort to mitigate global warming, the economics of nuclear power may be favored compared to current measures to mitigate global warming, such as carbon taxing, since the use of nuclear power does create CO2.<br />
<br />
==Politics of Nuclear Power==<br />
The politics of nuclear power harvesting have great effects on whether or not the plants will even operate. Although the U.S has the most nuclear reactors and produces the most electricity from nuclear energy, anti-nuclear movements did halt the creation and construction of new nuclear plants throughout the country. Currently there is one nuclear reactor under construction, beginning in 2003. But despite many opposition movements throughout the world, many nations are seeing the benefits that nuclear energy is producing as both an electricity generator and as a replacement to coal and oil power plants. Many countries find that their efforts to find other ways to harvest energy especially nuclear are efforts to mitigate global warming. As of today countries like Japan use nuclear energy that produces about 30% of their electricity.<ref name="politics">Nuclear Politics, John McCarthy , August 2007 <br />
[http://www.www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/nuclear-politics.html.com Link: http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/nuclear-politics.html]<br />
</ref> More than half of Belgium’s electricity is nuclear. China’s nuclear program is beginning to increase and India is currently constructing several nuclear power plants. Despite the benefits that these countries have had with nuclear energy, in just as many cases anti-nuclear movements have won the battle. In Germany, social democrats working together with the green party had opposed nuclear energy and proposed to close the remaining power plants but are currently being reviewed and in Austria where a power plant was built but was never operated because of a vote by its citizens.<ref name="politics"/><br />
France, for example, the world leader in nuclear exporting currently receives about 87.5 % of its electricity from nuclear energy '''reread this sentence for clarity'''.<ref name="market"/> The switch from coal and oil to nuclear energy has produced 18% less greenhouse gas per person, whereas switching back to coal and oil would actually increase greenhouse gas emissions to 25%. France currently has in operation 59 power plants producing a surplus in energy which it exports to surrounding countries such as Germany, Italy, Spain and others.<ref name="market"/> Nuclear power has also played significant negative roles in France where in July of 2008, 18,000 liters of solution containing Uranium where accidently released by Tricastin Nuclear Power Center. French authorities have banned the use of water from the Gaffière and Lauzon for drinking and watering of crops. Swimming, water sports and fishing were also banned. Approximately 100 employees have been documented to have suffered from some illness due to the exposure of radioactive particles that had escaped from a pipe.<ref name="market"/> This reactor has currently been shut down. Despite this accident, France is still in full production with its nuclear power plants, and I believe that France’s current usage of nuclear energy is a great advancement towards mitigation of global warming '''don't use I. also, be a bit more clear as to why nuclear power in France is still good even though you just said 100 employees were hurt by it.'''.<br />
<br />
==Risk Analysis==<br />
While analyzing the many potential benefits that nuclear energy can have on our daily lives, one can certainly overlook the negative aspects and hazards that such energy can produce. The greatest major risks that these power plants and storage tanks have are the potential of spawning deadly radioactivity. In the fall of 1957, fire was responsible for the melting of several plutonium reactors in Britain’s Sellafield complex, spewing clouds of radioactivity into the atmosphere.<ref name="acc">Major Nuclear Power Plant Accidents, AJ Software & Multimedia © Copyright 1998-2008, [http://www.atomicarchive.com/Reports/Japan/Accidents.shtml Link: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Reports/Japan/Accidents.shtml]</ref> An official document shows that the radiation leakage could be responsible for dozens of caner deaths that soon followed. One of the worst disasters in nuclear power harvesting history occurred in Chernobyl, Ukraine in April of 1986.<ref name="chacc">Chernobyl Accident, World Nuclear Association, Carlton House, 22a St James's Square, London, SW1Y 4JH, UK, [http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/chernobyl/inf07.html Link: http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/chernobyl/inf07.html]</ref>Due to the faulty construction of a nuclear reactor caused it to literally explode. The effects of the explosion were numerous and evident that nuclear power has extremely horrendous side effects. The initial explosion killed two workers instantly but most deaths are considered to be part of the remaining fallout. In total, an official count of 56 deaths has been linked to be caused by cancer and as a consequence to the exposure to radiation.<ref name="chacc"/> Estimations show that there may be about 4,000 more deaths occurring because of radiation induced cancer out of the estimated 600,000 people that were exposed.<ref name="chacc"/> Many areas surrounding the Chernobyl site still remain off limits because of traces of radiation that thrives. This massive release of radioactivity not only had the potential to affect humans while breathing but by ingestion of food and drinks because of the contamination of water that was used for crops, that were then used to feed livestock, and that soon found its way to their dinner table and into their system. The fear of radiation poisoning lingered throughout the public because of the much contamination of products necessary for daily living, and the uncertainty of what really was contaminated and what was not. When dealing with nuclear energy I believe the one thing that we must have in mind is the proper construction and aftercare of these plants because as evident by past events their negative turnouts are nothing short of disastrous. <br />
<br />
[[Image:300px-Chernobyl_Disaster.jpg]]<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Many of these numerous disasters are what have halted the creation and expansion of nuclear power harvesting but in reality these problems could have been avoided with careful supervision over their creation and stronger technology. Despite the issues that may arise from the movement to nuclear energy, I believe its benefits further exceed its negative aspects. In my opinion nuclear power is not the only resource that is currently available to us that allows us to escape the byproduct of CO2, and whether nuclear power becomes the “thing” of the future, the bottom line is that it’s helping to mitigate global warming now.<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/> <br />
<br />
The Market Oracle, France is Still a Nuclear Power Global Leader, © 2007 Elliott H. Gue<br />
[http://www.marketoracle.co.uk/Article1160.html Link: www.marketoracle.co.uk/Article1160.html]<br />
<br />
Nuclear Energy & Society, Worldwide Benefits, Ilan Lipper & Jon Stone<br />
[http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/nuclear.htm Link: www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/nuclear.htm ]<br />
<br />
Nuclear Politics, John McCarthy , August 2007 <br />
[http://www.www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/nuclear-politics.html.com Link: http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/nuclear-politics.html]<br />
<br />
Economics of new nuclear power plants, Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.,<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_new_nuclear_power_plants Link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_new_nuclear_power_plants]<br />
<br />
Projected cost for new Alliant coal plant soars past $1 billion, The Capital Times © 2008, [http://www.madison.com/tct/business/291631 Link: http://www.madison.com/tct/business/291631]<br />
<br />
Chernobyl Accident, World Nuclear Association, Carlton House, 22a St James's Square, London, SW1Y 4JH, UK, [http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/chernobyl/inf07.html Link: http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/chernobyl/inf07.html]<br />
<br />
Major Nuclear Power Plant Accidents, AJ Software & Multimedia © Copyright 1998-2008, [http://www.atomicarchive.com/Reports/Japan/Accidents.shtml Link: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Reports/Japan/Accidents.shtml]</div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Nuclear_Energy&diff=651
Nuclear Energy
2008-11-03T02:01:54Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: /* Cost and Economics */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Overview==<br />
As the world discusses possible topics about new energy development and substitutions for coal and oil, the topic of nuclear power comes into conversation. Analysis of current energy usage worldwide and concern for global warming reveals a challenge for current and future energy consumers: Implement nuclear power usage because of its non production of CO2 in a movement to mitigate global warming or continue using Coal and Oil plants because of our current dependence and because of our current technology and its dependence on coal and oil.<br />
Nuclear power is a technology where energy is harvested from the atomic nuclei by controlled nuclear reactions. As of today about 15% of the world’s electricity is supplied by nuclear power.<ref name="market">The Market Oracle, France is Still a Nuclear Power Global Leader, © 2007 Elliott H. Gue<br />
[http://www.marketoracle.co.uk/Article1160.html Link: www.marketoracle.co.uk/Article1160.html]</ref> Currently there are about 439 nuclear power reactors in operation in 31 countries and about 83 more nuclear power reactors in construction.<ref name="market"/> <br />
==Creation of Nuclear Energy==<br />
Nuclear energy is produced when the nuclei of atoms of elements are either split or combined. The two main ways that nuclear energy can be harvested is through nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. During the process of nuclear fission, the nuclei of atoms are split. The preferred element to be used in this process is Uranium because of its simple separation ability.<ref name="society">Nuclear Energy & Society, Worldwide Benefits, Ilan Lipper & Jon Stone<br />
[http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/nuclear.htm Link: www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/nuclear.htm ]</ref> Shooting neutrons at Uranium atoms causes their nuclei to split, releasing not only energy but other neutrons that will penetrate other nearby Uranium atoms.<ref name="society"/> This is known as a Chain Reaction. The second process, nuclear fusion occurs when atoms join together, or fuse. Extremely hot conditions are favored for the fusion of hydrogen nuclei to form helium atoms. These combinations cause explosions thus releasing huge amounts of energy.<ref name="society"/> In both these processes this energy can be harvested for supplying electricity or for the creation of nuclear weapons, such as the hydrogen bomb.<br />
==Cost and Economics==<br />
Cost is always a factor when dealing with an issue that will influence every major economy of the world, and cost certainly does play a role when deciding “What’s more cost effective a nuclear power plant or our current coal plants?” '''Obvious statement in first sentence. Start with second sentence.'''When dealing first with the construction of these two plants, Nuclear power plants '''cost more to build than traditional coal power plants. The cost of construction for nuclear plants is higher because of the use of containment buildings and ''' safety-related equipment that must meet higher standards than the traditional structures. The highest costly coal plant currently is the controversial Alliant Energy's coal plant that will cost an amount of about $1.2 billion dollars to build. While most Nuclear power plants cost between 3 and 5 billion dollars to construct only. '''didn't you just say that nuclear power plants would cost more?'''<ref name="cost"> '''Economics of new nuclear power plants, Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.,<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_new_nuclear_power_plants Link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_new_nuclear_power_plants]</ref> In general, coal and nuclear plants have the same types of operating costs, maintenance cost and fuel costs. The biggest difference in cost is the price of fuel. Currently the cost of uranium is only at a fraction of the cost of fuel for coal and oil plants.<ref name="cost"/> Several other economic issues exist when dealing with the creation, maintenance and disposal of nuclear power plants. First of all it takes approximately 4-6 years to construct a nuclear power plant, with its biggest downfall not being cost but delay.<ref name="cost"/> The more delays that occur during the creation process means the longer waiting time for companies to receive revenue. Nuclear power plants must also have insurance in case of a nuclear or radiological incident enforced by the Price-Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act.<ref name="cost"/> Each power plant must in total have insurance worth $10 billion.<ref name="cost"/> At the end of a power plant’s lifetime, roughly about 50-60 years, dismantling and decommissioning must occur. Whereas in the United States, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission requires that the plant put money aside during its operating years for its decommissioning that could entail a cost of $300 million.<ref name="cost"/> In an effort to mitigate global warming, the economics of nuclear power may be favored compared to current measures to mitigate global warming, such as carbon taxing, since the use of nuclear power does create CO2.<br />
<br />
==Politics of Nuclear Power==<br />
The politics of nuclear power harvesting have great effects on whether or not the plants will even operate. Although the U.S has the most nuclear reactors and produces the most electricity from nuclear energy, anti-nuclear movements did halt the creation and construction of new nuclear plants throughout the country. Currently there is one nuclear reactor under construction, beginning in 2003. But despite many opposition movements throughout the world, many nations are seeing the benefits that nuclear energy is producing as both an electricity generator and as a replacement to coal and oil power plants. Many countries find that their efforts to find other ways to harvest energy especially nuclear are efforts to mitigate global warming. As of today countries like Japan use nuclear energy that produces about 30% of their electricity.<ref name="politics">Nuclear Politics, John McCarthy , August 2007 <br />
[http://www.www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/nuclear-politics.html.com Link: http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/nuclear-politics.html]<br />
</ref> More than half of Belgium’s electricity is nuclear. China’s nuclear program is beginning to increase and India is currently constructing several nuclear power plants. Despite the benefits that these countries have had with nuclear energy, in just as many cases anti-nuclear movements have won the battle. In Germany, social democrats working together with the green party had opposed nuclear energy and proposed to close the remaining power plants but are currently being reviewed and in Austria where a power plant was built but was never operated because of a vote by its citizens.<ref name="politics"/><br />
France, for example, the world leader in nuclear exporting currently receives about 87.5 % of its electricity from nuclear energy.<ref name="market"/> The switch from coal and oil to nuclear energy has produced 18% less greenhouse gas per person, whereas switching back to coal and oil would actually increase greenhouse gas emissions to 25%. France currently has in operation 59 power plants producing a surplus in energy which it exports to surrounding countries such as Germany, Italy, Spain and others.<ref name="market"/> Nuclear power has also played significant negative roles in France where in July of 2008, 18,000 liters of solution containing Uranium where accidently released by Tricastin Nuclear Power Center. French authorities have banned the use of water from the Gaffière and Lauzon for drinking and watering of crops. Swimming, water sports and fishing were also banned. Approximately 100 employees have been documented to have suffered from some illness due to the exposure of radioactive particles that had escaped from a pipe.<ref name="market"/> This reactor has currently been shut down. Despite this accident, France is still in full production with its nuclear power plants, and I believe that France’s current usage of nuclear energy is a great advancement towards mitigation of global warming.<br />
==Risk Analysis==<br />
While analyzing the many potential benefits that nuclear energy can have on our daily lives, one can certainly overlook the negative aspects and hazards that such energy can produce. The greatest major risks that these power plants and storage tanks have are the potential of spawning deadly radioactivity. In the fall of 1957, fire was responsible for the melting of several plutonium reactors in Britain’s Sellafield complex, spewing clouds of radioactivity into the atmosphere.<ref name="acc">Major Nuclear Power Plant Accidents, AJ Software & Multimedia © Copyright 1998-2008, [http://www.atomicarchive.com/Reports/Japan/Accidents.shtml Link: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Reports/Japan/Accidents.shtml]</ref> An official document shows that the radiation leakage could be responsible for dozens of caner deaths that soon followed. One of the worst disasters in nuclear power harvesting history occurred in Chernobyl, Ukraine in April of 1986.<ref name="chacc">Chernobyl Accident, World Nuclear Association, Carlton House, 22a St James's Square, London, SW1Y 4JH, UK, [http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/chernobyl/inf07.html Link: http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/chernobyl/inf07.html]</ref>Due to the faulty construction of a nuclear reactor caused it to literally explode. The effects of the explosion were numerous and evident that nuclear power has extremely horrendous side effects. The initial explosion killed two workers instantly but most deaths are considered to be part of the remaining fallout. In total, an official count of 56 deaths has been linked to be caused by cancer and as a consequence to the exposure to radiation.<ref name="chacc"/> Estimations show that there may be about 4,000 more deaths occurring because of radiation induced cancer out of the estimated 600,000 people that were exposed.<ref name="chacc"/> Many areas surrounding the Chernobyl site still remain off limits because of traces of radiation that thrives. This massive release of radioactivity not only had the potential to affect humans while breathing but by ingestion of food and drinks because of the contamination of water that was used for crops, that were then used to feed livestock, and that soon found its way to their dinner table and into their system. The fear of radiation poisoning lingered throughout the public because of the much contamination of products necessary for daily living, and the uncertainty of what really was contaminated and what was not. When dealing with nuclear energy I believe the one thing that we must have in mind is the proper construction and aftercare of these plants because as evident by past events their negative turnouts are nothing short of disastrous. <br />
<br />
[[Image:300px-Chernobyl_Disaster.jpg]]<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Many of these numerous disasters are what have halted the creation and expansion of nuclear power harvesting but in reality these problems could have been avoided with careful supervision over their creation and stronger technology. Despite the issues that may arise from the movement to nuclear energy, I believe its benefits further exceed its negative aspects. In my opinion nuclear power is not the only resource that is currently available to us that allows us to escape the byproduct of CO2, and whether nuclear power becomes the “thing” of the future, the bottom line is that it’s helping to mitigate global warming now.<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/> <br />
<br />
The Market Oracle, France is Still a Nuclear Power Global Leader, © 2007 Elliott H. Gue<br />
[http://www.marketoracle.co.uk/Article1160.html Link: www.marketoracle.co.uk/Article1160.html]<br />
<br />
Nuclear Energy & Society, Worldwide Benefits, Ilan Lipper & Jon Stone<br />
[http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/nuclear.htm Link: www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/nuclear.htm ]<br />
<br />
Nuclear Politics, John McCarthy , August 2007 <br />
[http://www.www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/nuclear-politics.html.com Link: http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/nuclear-politics.html]<br />
<br />
Economics of new nuclear power plants, Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.,<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_new_nuclear_power_plants Link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_new_nuclear_power_plants]<br />
<br />
Projected cost for new Alliant coal plant soars past $1 billion, The Capital Times © 2008, [http://www.madison.com/tct/business/291631 Link: http://www.madison.com/tct/business/291631]<br />
<br />
Chernobyl Accident, World Nuclear Association, Carlton House, 22a St James's Square, London, SW1Y 4JH, UK, [http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/chernobyl/inf07.html Link: http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/chernobyl/inf07.html]<br />
<br />
Major Nuclear Power Plant Accidents, AJ Software & Multimedia © Copyright 1998-2008, [http://www.atomicarchive.com/Reports/Japan/Accidents.shtml Link: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Reports/Japan/Accidents.shtml]</div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Nuclear_Energy&diff=649
Nuclear Energy
2008-11-03T01:59:10Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: /* Cost and Economics */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Overview==<br />
As the world discusses possible topics about new energy development and substitutions for coal and oil, the topic of nuclear power comes into conversation. Analysis of current energy usage worldwide and concern for global warming reveals a challenge for current and future energy consumers: Implement nuclear power usage because of its non production of CO2 in a movement to mitigate global warming or continue using Coal and Oil plants because of our current dependence and because of our current technology and its dependence on coal and oil.<br />
Nuclear power is a technology where energy is harvested from the atomic nuclei by controlled nuclear reactions. As of today about 15% of the world’s electricity is supplied by nuclear power.<ref name="market">The Market Oracle, France is Still a Nuclear Power Global Leader, © 2007 Elliott H. Gue<br />
[http://www.marketoracle.co.uk/Article1160.html Link: www.marketoracle.co.uk/Article1160.html]</ref> Currently there are about 439 nuclear power reactors in operation in 31 countries and about 83 more nuclear power reactors in construction.<ref name="market"/> <br />
==Creation of Nuclear Energy==<br />
Nuclear energy is produced when the nuclei of atoms of elements are either split or combined. The two main ways that nuclear energy can be harvested is through nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. During the process of nuclear fission, the nuclei of atoms are split. The preferred element to be used in this process is Uranium because of its simple separation ability.<ref name="society">Nuclear Energy & Society, Worldwide Benefits, Ilan Lipper & Jon Stone<br />
[http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/nuclear.htm Link: www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/nuclear.htm ]</ref> Shooting neutrons at Uranium atoms causes their nuclei to split, releasing not only energy but other neutrons that will penetrate other nearby Uranium atoms.<ref name="society"/> This is known as a Chain Reaction. The second process, nuclear fusion occurs when atoms join together, or fuse. Extremely hot conditions are favored for the fusion of hydrogen nuclei to form helium atoms. These combinations cause explosions thus releasing huge amounts of energy.<ref name="society"/> In both these processes this energy can be harvested for supplying electricity or for the creation of nuclear weapons, such as the hydrogen bomb.<br />
==Cost and Economics==<br />
Cost is always a factor when dealing with an issue that will influence every major economy of the world, and cost certainly does play a role when deciding “What’s more cost effective a nuclear power plant or our current coal plants?” '''Obvious statement in first sentence. Start with second sentence.'''When dealing first with the construction of these two plants, Nuclear power plants definitely exceed the cost compared to coal plant construction since a nuclear plant cost must be higher because of the buildings used for the containment or for safety-related equipment that must meet higher standards than the traditional structures. The highest costly coal plant currently is the controversial Alliant Energy's coal plant that will cost an amount of about $1.2 billion dollars to build. While most Nuclear power plants cost between 3 and 5 billion dollars to construct only.<ref name="cost">Economics of new nuclear power plants, Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.,<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_new_nuclear_power_plants Link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_new_nuclear_power_plants]</ref> In general, coal and nuclear plants have the same types of operating costs, maintenance cost and fuel costs. The biggest difference in cost is the price of fuel. Currently the cost of uranium is only at a fraction of the cost of fuel for coal and oil plants.<ref name="cost"/> Several other economic issues exist when dealing with the creation, maintenance and disposal of nuclear power plants. First of all it takes approximately 4-6 years to construct a nuclear power plant, with its biggest downfall not being cost but delay.<ref name="cost"/> The more delays that occur during the creation process means the longer waiting time for companies to receive revenue. Nuclear power plants must also have insurance in case of a nuclear or radiological incident enforced by the Price-Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act.<ref name="cost"/> Each power plant must in total have insurance worth $10 billion.<ref name="cost"/> At the end of a power plant’s lifetime, roughly about 50-60 years, dismantling and decommissioning must occur. Whereas in the United States, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission requires that the plant put money aside during its operating years for its decommissioning that could entail a cost of $300 million.<ref name="cost"/> In an effort to mitigate global warming, the economics of nuclear power may be favored compared to current measures to mitigate global warming, such as carbon taxing, since the use of nuclear power does create CO2.<br />
<br />
==Politics of Nuclear Power==<br />
The politics of nuclear power harvesting have great effects on whether or not the plants will even operate. Although the U.S has the most nuclear reactors and produces the most electricity from nuclear energy, anti-nuclear movements did halt the creation and construction of new nuclear plants throughout the country. Currently there is one nuclear reactor under construction, beginning in 2003. But despite many opposition movements throughout the world, many nations are seeing the benefits that nuclear energy is producing as both an electricity generator and as a replacement to coal and oil power plants. Many countries find that their efforts to find other ways to harvest energy especially nuclear are efforts to mitigate global warming. As of today countries like Japan use nuclear energy that produces about 30% of their electricity.<ref name="politics">Nuclear Politics, John McCarthy , August 2007 <br />
[http://www.www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/nuclear-politics.html.com Link: http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/nuclear-politics.html]<br />
</ref> More than half of Belgium’s electricity is nuclear. China’s nuclear program is beginning to increase and India is currently constructing several nuclear power plants. Despite the benefits that these countries have had with nuclear energy, in just as many cases anti-nuclear movements have won the battle. In Germany, social democrats working together with the green party had opposed nuclear energy and proposed to close the remaining power plants but are currently being reviewed and in Austria where a power plant was built but was never operated because of a vote by its citizens.<ref name="politics"/><br />
France, for example, the world leader in nuclear exporting currently receives about 87.5 % of its electricity from nuclear energy.<ref name="market"/> The switch from coal and oil to nuclear energy has produced 18% less greenhouse gas per person, whereas switching back to coal and oil would actually increase greenhouse gas emissions to 25%. France currently has in operation 59 power plants producing a surplus in energy which it exports to surrounding countries such as Germany, Italy, Spain and others.<ref name="market"/> Nuclear power has also played significant negative roles in France where in July of 2008, 18,000 liters of solution containing Uranium where accidently released by Tricastin Nuclear Power Center. French authorities have banned the use of water from the Gaffière and Lauzon for drinking and watering of crops. Swimming, water sports and fishing were also banned. Approximately 100 employees have been documented to have suffered from some illness due to the exposure of radioactive particles that had escaped from a pipe.<ref name="market"/> This reactor has currently been shut down. Despite this accident, France is still in full production with its nuclear power plants, and I believe that France’s current usage of nuclear energy is a great advancement towards mitigation of global warming.<br />
==Risk Analysis==<br />
While analyzing the many potential benefits that nuclear energy can have on our daily lives, one can certainly overlook the negative aspects and hazards that such energy can produce. The greatest major risks that these power plants and storage tanks have are the potential of spawning deadly radioactivity. In the fall of 1957, fire was responsible for the melting of several plutonium reactors in Britain’s Sellafield complex, spewing clouds of radioactivity into the atmosphere.<ref name="acc">Major Nuclear Power Plant Accidents, AJ Software & Multimedia © Copyright 1998-2008, [http://www.atomicarchive.com/Reports/Japan/Accidents.shtml Link: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Reports/Japan/Accidents.shtml]</ref> An official document shows that the radiation leakage could be responsible for dozens of caner deaths that soon followed. One of the worst disasters in nuclear power harvesting history occurred in Chernobyl, Ukraine in April of 1986.<ref name="chacc">Chernobyl Accident, World Nuclear Association, Carlton House, 22a St James's Square, London, SW1Y 4JH, UK, [http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/chernobyl/inf07.html Link: http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/chernobyl/inf07.html]</ref>Due to the faulty construction of a nuclear reactor caused it to literally explode. The effects of the explosion were numerous and evident that nuclear power has extremely horrendous side effects. The initial explosion killed two workers instantly but most deaths are considered to be part of the remaining fallout. In total, an official count of 56 deaths has been linked to be caused by cancer and as a consequence to the exposure to radiation.<ref name="chacc"/> Estimations show that there may be about 4,000 more deaths occurring because of radiation induced cancer out of the estimated 600,000 people that were exposed.<ref name="chacc"/> Many areas surrounding the Chernobyl site still remain off limits because of traces of radiation that thrives. This massive release of radioactivity not only had the potential to affect humans while breathing but by ingestion of food and drinks because of the contamination of water that was used for crops, that were then used to feed livestock, and that soon found its way to their dinner table and into their system. The fear of radiation poisoning lingered throughout the public because of the much contamination of products necessary for daily living, and the uncertainty of what really was contaminated and what was not. When dealing with nuclear energy I believe the one thing that we must have in mind is the proper construction and aftercare of these plants because as evident by past events their negative turnouts are nothing short of disastrous. <br />
<br />
[[Image:300px-Chernobyl_Disaster.jpg]]<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Many of these numerous disasters are what have halted the creation and expansion of nuclear power harvesting but in reality these problems could have been avoided with careful supervision over their creation and stronger technology. Despite the issues that may arise from the movement to nuclear energy, I believe its benefits further exceed its negative aspects. In my opinion nuclear power is not the only resource that is currently available to us that allows us to escape the byproduct of CO2, and whether nuclear power becomes the “thing” of the future, the bottom line is that it’s helping to mitigate global warming now.<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/> <br />
<br />
The Market Oracle, France is Still a Nuclear Power Global Leader, © 2007 Elliott H. Gue<br />
[http://www.marketoracle.co.uk/Article1160.html Link: www.marketoracle.co.uk/Article1160.html]<br />
<br />
Nuclear Energy & Society, Worldwide Benefits, Ilan Lipper & Jon Stone<br />
[http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/nuclear.htm Link: www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/nuclear.htm ]<br />
<br />
Nuclear Politics, John McCarthy , August 2007 <br />
[http://www.www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/nuclear-politics.html.com Link: http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/nuclear-politics.html]<br />
<br />
Economics of new nuclear power plants, Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.,<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_new_nuclear_power_plants Link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_new_nuclear_power_plants]<br />
<br />
Projected cost for new Alliant coal plant soars past $1 billion, The Capital Times © 2008, [http://www.madison.com/tct/business/291631 Link: http://www.madison.com/tct/business/291631]<br />
<br />
Chernobyl Accident, World Nuclear Association, Carlton House, 22a St James's Square, London, SW1Y 4JH, UK, [http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/chernobyl/inf07.html Link: http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/chernobyl/inf07.html]<br />
<br />
Major Nuclear Power Plant Accidents, AJ Software & Multimedia © Copyright 1998-2008, [http://www.atomicarchive.com/Reports/Japan/Accidents.shtml Link: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Reports/Japan/Accidents.shtml]</div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Hydropower&diff=648
Hydropower
2008-11-03T01:56:50Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: /* Risk Analysis */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
As we begin to realize the impacts of global warming, we must prepare for the future, in terms of our own survival and the survival of our environment. '''Nix the first sentence'''Approximately 7% of energy used in the United States is renewable. Of the 7% of renewable energy used, only about 36% of it was produced by hydropower. The amount used may vary from year to year due to the amount of precipitation, and the geographical area.'''I'd nix that sentence, too. It's very general.''' About 8% of renewable sources produced electricity in 2007. 71% of the renewable electricity was created by hydropower. <ref>Energy Information Administration. Dept. of Energy. 25 Oct. 2008 <http://eia.doe.gov>.</ref> Hydropower is one of the most environmentally friendly ways to produce energy. This procedure to produce energy does not negatively impact the air, nor the water. Hydropower is a step that can be taken into consideration for the transit into the clean energy future we all hoped for. '''Reread the last 3 sentences for clarity. You might just want to say: Hydropower is an efficient, clean energy source. Using hydropower rather than fossil fuels will alleviate the effects of climate change in the future.'''<br />
<br />
If hydropower was eliminated on a global scale, replacing the energy production with thermal resources - an additional 1112 million tons of coal, 4449 million barrels of oil, or 26,696 billion feet cubed of natural gases will be added to the existing usage '''Reread sentence for clarity.'''. <ref>Frey, Gary W., and Deborah M. Linke. "Energy Policy 30." Hydropower as a renewable and sustainable energy resource meeting global energy challangesin a reasonable way (2002): 1261-265.</ref> <br />
<br />
Hydropower is energy created by capturing the kinetic energy of channeling and harnessing water. The amount of energy created is determined by the flow and/or the fall of moving water. Energy is created through a simple process in which the water flows through pipes, which then pushes against turbines to spin generators in which electricity is produced. Dams are storage systems for this method of creating energy. By having the power to control the water movement, water can be released when there is a high demand for electricity. The dams helps with irrigation but create some discrepancies for natural habitat like fishes. '''discrepancies isn't the right word. do you mean that dams help irrigate land but might cause other problems, such as changing the natural habitat of fish? '''<br />
<br />
== Types of Hydropower Plants ==<br />
<br />
Micro Hydropower<br />
<br />
<br />
Small Hydropower<br />
<br />
<br />
Large Hydrpower<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Impoundment'''<br />
<br />
Impoundment is the most common type of hydroelectric power plants. This system of a larger hydropower plant requires a dam to store a river in a reservoir. Water is controlled and released to meet the electricity needs or to maintain reservoir levels. Electricity is produced when water is released, allowing water to flow through a turbine, which then spins the turbine, activating a generator that produced the electricity needed. <ref>"Wind and Hydropower Technology Programs." Energy Effecientcy and Renewable Energy. 9 Aug. 2005. U.S. Department of Energy. 28 Oct. 2008 <http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydro_plant_types.html>.</ref> [[Image:Impoundment.jpg|Impoundment.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Diversion'''<br />
<br />
Diversion is another also known as "run-of-water". It may or may not require a dam in the process of producing electricity, but it channels river through a canal or penstock. <ref>"Wind and Hydropower Technology Programs." Energy Effecientcy and Renewable Energy. 9 Aug. 2005. U.S. Department of Energy. 28 Oct. 2008 <http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydro_plant_types.html>.</ref> [[Image:Diversion.jpg|Diversion.jpg]]<br />
<br />
'''Pumped Storage'''<br />
<br />
During a period when demand of electricity is high, water is released into the lower reservoir to generate electricity. When the demands for electricity is low, the pumped storage facility stores the energy by pumping water from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir. <ref>"Wind and Hydropower Technology Programs." Energy Effecientcy and Renewable Energy. 9 Aug. 2005. U.S. Department of Energy. 28 Oct. 2008 <http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydro_plant_types.html>.</ref> [[Image:Pumped_storage.jpg|Pumped_storage.jpg]]<br />
<br />
== Different Forms of Hydropower ==<br />
<br />
Tidal Power<br />
<br />
Wave Power<br />
<br />
Water Wheel<br />
'''Good photos and brief explanations above, but I assume you're going to fill in with more writing?'''<br />
<br />
== Costs ==<br />
<br />
Many people are discouraged by the initial cost to build plants for renewable energy. It is expensive and very capital intensive. Renewable energy plants are more expensive to build and operate than natural gas and coal plants. Hydropower plants are usually located in rural areas were there are flowing rivers and falls. The power is easily available in these remote areas. When it comes to the populated cities, transportation of the renewable Hydropower electricity is more difficult. Transmission lines are required to deliver the power necessary. The investment is very useful in the long run. Generating and producing the power from Hydropower is very cheap. <ref>Energy Information Administration. Dept. of Energy. 25 Oct. 2008 <http://eia.doe.gov>.</ref> <br />
<br />
<br />
== United States new Policy to Encourage Renewable Energy ==<br />
<br />
In recent years, the U.S. government began giving tax incentives for renewable energy. The Renewable Electricity Production Tax credit was also introduced to encourage an increase in renewable energy. Each State of the United states now has a Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS) in which each states require their energy providers to generate or acquire a certain percentage of generation from renewable energy. The Renewable Energy Certificate/credit (REC) is built into the RPS system. This allows the electricity providers of each state to sell renewable energy certificates/credit. With the proceeds, new investments in renewable energy projects can be made. <ref>Energy Information Administration. Dept. of Energy. 25 Oct. 2008 <http://eia.doe.gov>.</ref> <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Risk Analysis ==<br />
<br />
There are some risks involved with developing hydropower plants. Due to the effects of global warming, some weather patterns are already beginning to alter. The change in precipitation pattern posses a great threat to any projects. Decreased stream and river flows can threaten energy resources. Not only will hydropower be effected, but also in nuclear energy production. Some areas of the world may gain an increase in annual rainfall, while other regions may experience a decrease in precipitation. The effects of altered precipitation include a diminished water supply, decrease in water quality, and greater flood risk as well as droughts. Society is hesitant in building newer hydropower plants because of the environmental threats, as well as the climate change itself shifting with precipitation patters. <ref>Mann, Michael, and Lee R. Kump. Dire Predictions : Understanding Global Warming. Grand Rapids: Dorling Kindersley, Incorporated, 2008.</ref> The creation of electricity through hydropower is cheap. But if water becomes scarce in areas were they once flourished, then the prices might drastically increase. Currently, the world's population is exponentially growing. The water demand to supply water for everyone will also increase as population grows, even though the availability of clean water will become scarce.<br />
Hydropower projects have a negative impact on the river ecosystem '''This is a key point. Expand.'''<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references/></div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Hydropower&diff=647
Hydropower
2008-11-03T01:56:11Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: /* Different Forms of Hydropower */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
As we begin to realize the impacts of global warming, we must prepare for the future, in terms of our own survival and the survival of our environment. '''Nix the first sentence'''Approximately 7% of energy used in the United States is renewable. Of the 7% of renewable energy used, only about 36% of it was produced by hydropower. The amount used may vary from year to year due to the amount of precipitation, and the geographical area.'''I'd nix that sentence, too. It's very general.''' About 8% of renewable sources produced electricity in 2007. 71% of the renewable electricity was created by hydropower. <ref>Energy Information Administration. Dept. of Energy. 25 Oct. 2008 <http://eia.doe.gov>.</ref> Hydropower is one of the most environmentally friendly ways to produce energy. This procedure to produce energy does not negatively impact the air, nor the water. Hydropower is a step that can be taken into consideration for the transit into the clean energy future we all hoped for. '''Reread the last 3 sentences for clarity. You might just want to say: Hydropower is an efficient, clean energy source. Using hydropower rather than fossil fuels will alleviate the effects of climate change in the future.'''<br />
<br />
If hydropower was eliminated on a global scale, replacing the energy production with thermal resources - an additional 1112 million tons of coal, 4449 million barrels of oil, or 26,696 billion feet cubed of natural gases will be added to the existing usage '''Reread sentence for clarity.'''. <ref>Frey, Gary W., and Deborah M. Linke. "Energy Policy 30." Hydropower as a renewable and sustainable energy resource meeting global energy challangesin a reasonable way (2002): 1261-265.</ref> <br />
<br />
Hydropower is energy created by capturing the kinetic energy of channeling and harnessing water. The amount of energy created is determined by the flow and/or the fall of moving water. Energy is created through a simple process in which the water flows through pipes, which then pushes against turbines to spin generators in which electricity is produced. Dams are storage systems for this method of creating energy. By having the power to control the water movement, water can be released when there is a high demand for electricity. The dams helps with irrigation but create some discrepancies for natural habitat like fishes. '''discrepancies isn't the right word. do you mean that dams help irrigate land but might cause other problems, such as changing the natural habitat of fish? '''<br />
<br />
== Types of Hydropower Plants ==<br />
<br />
Micro Hydropower<br />
<br />
<br />
Small Hydropower<br />
<br />
<br />
Large Hydrpower<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Impoundment'''<br />
<br />
Impoundment is the most common type of hydroelectric power plants. This system of a larger hydropower plant requires a dam to store a river in a reservoir. Water is controlled and released to meet the electricity needs or to maintain reservoir levels. Electricity is produced when water is released, allowing water to flow through a turbine, which then spins the turbine, activating a generator that produced the electricity needed. <ref>"Wind and Hydropower Technology Programs." Energy Effecientcy and Renewable Energy. 9 Aug. 2005. U.S. Department of Energy. 28 Oct. 2008 <http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydro_plant_types.html>.</ref> [[Image:Impoundment.jpg|Impoundment.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Diversion'''<br />
<br />
Diversion is another also known as "run-of-water". It may or may not require a dam in the process of producing electricity, but it channels river through a canal or penstock. <ref>"Wind and Hydropower Technology Programs." Energy Effecientcy and Renewable Energy. 9 Aug. 2005. U.S. Department of Energy. 28 Oct. 2008 <http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydro_plant_types.html>.</ref> [[Image:Diversion.jpg|Diversion.jpg]]<br />
<br />
'''Pumped Storage'''<br />
<br />
During a period when demand of electricity is high, water is released into the lower reservoir to generate electricity. When the demands for electricity is low, the pumped storage facility stores the energy by pumping water from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir. <ref>"Wind and Hydropower Technology Programs." Energy Effecientcy and Renewable Energy. 9 Aug. 2005. U.S. Department of Energy. 28 Oct. 2008 <http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydro_plant_types.html>.</ref> [[Image:Pumped_storage.jpg|Pumped_storage.jpg]]<br />
<br />
== Different Forms of Hydropower ==<br />
<br />
Tidal Power<br />
<br />
Wave Power<br />
<br />
Water Wheel<br />
'''Good photos and brief explanations above, but I assume you're going to fill in with more writing?'''<br />
<br />
== Costs ==<br />
<br />
Many people are discouraged by the initial cost to build plants for renewable energy. It is expensive and very capital intensive. Renewable energy plants are more expensive to build and operate than natural gas and coal plants. Hydropower plants are usually located in rural areas were there are flowing rivers and falls. The power is easily available in these remote areas. When it comes to the populated cities, transportation of the renewable Hydropower electricity is more difficult. Transmission lines are required to deliver the power necessary. The investment is very useful in the long run. Generating and producing the power from Hydropower is very cheap. <ref>Energy Information Administration. Dept. of Energy. 25 Oct. 2008 <http://eia.doe.gov>.</ref> <br />
<br />
<br />
== United States new Policy to Encourage Renewable Energy ==<br />
<br />
In recent years, the U.S. government began giving tax incentives for renewable energy. The Renewable Electricity Production Tax credit was also introduced to encourage an increase in renewable energy. Each State of the United states now has a Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS) in which each states require their energy providers to generate or acquire a certain percentage of generation from renewable energy. The Renewable Energy Certificate/credit (REC) is built into the RPS system. This allows the electricity providers of each state to sell renewable energy certificates/credit. With the proceeds, new investments in renewable energy projects can be made. <ref>Energy Information Administration. Dept. of Energy. 25 Oct. 2008 <http://eia.doe.gov>.</ref> <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Risk Analysis ==<br />
<br />
There are some risks involved with developing hydropower plants. Due to the effects of global warming, some weather patterns are already beginning to alter. The change in precipitation pattern posses a great threat to any projects. Decreased stream and river flows can threaten energy resources. Not only will hydropower be effected, but also in nuclear energy production. Some areas of the world may gain an increase in annual rainfall, while other regions may experience a decrease in precipitation. The effects of altered precipitation include a diminished water supply, decrease in water quality, and greater flood risk as well as droughts. Society is hesitant in building newer hydropower plants because of the environmental threats, as well as the climate change itself shifting with precipitation patters. <ref>Mann, Michael, and Lee R. Kump. Dire Predictions : Understanding Global Warming. Grand Rapids: Dorling Kindersley, Incorporated, 2008.</ref> The creation of electricity through hydropower is cheap. But if water becomes scarce in areas were they once flourished, then the prices might drastically increase. Currently, the world's population is exponentially growing. The water demand to supply water for everyone will also increase as population grows, even though the availability of clean water will become scarce.<br />
Hydropower projects have a negative impact on the river ecosystem.<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references/></div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Hydropower&diff=646
Hydropower
2008-11-03T01:55:29Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: /* Overview */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
As we begin to realize the impacts of global warming, we must prepare for the future, in terms of our own survival and the survival of our environment. '''Nix the first sentence'''Approximately 7% of energy used in the United States is renewable. Of the 7% of renewable energy used, only about 36% of it was produced by hydropower. The amount used may vary from year to year due to the amount of precipitation, and the geographical area.'''I'd nix that sentence, too. It's very general.''' About 8% of renewable sources produced electricity in 2007. 71% of the renewable electricity was created by hydropower. <ref>Energy Information Administration. Dept. of Energy. 25 Oct. 2008 <http://eia.doe.gov>.</ref> Hydropower is one of the most environmentally friendly ways to produce energy. This procedure to produce energy does not negatively impact the air, nor the water. Hydropower is a step that can be taken into consideration for the transit into the clean energy future we all hoped for. '''Reread the last 3 sentences for clarity. You might just want to say: Hydropower is an efficient, clean energy source. Using hydropower rather than fossil fuels will alleviate the effects of climate change in the future.'''<br />
<br />
If hydropower was eliminated on a global scale, replacing the energy production with thermal resources - an additional 1112 million tons of coal, 4449 million barrels of oil, or 26,696 billion feet cubed of natural gases will be added to the existing usage '''Reread sentence for clarity.'''. <ref>Frey, Gary W., and Deborah M. Linke. "Energy Policy 30." Hydropower as a renewable and sustainable energy resource meeting global energy challangesin a reasonable way (2002): 1261-265.</ref> <br />
<br />
Hydropower is energy created by capturing the kinetic energy of channeling and harnessing water. The amount of energy created is determined by the flow and/or the fall of moving water. Energy is created through a simple process in which the water flows through pipes, which then pushes against turbines to spin generators in which electricity is produced. Dams are storage systems for this method of creating energy. By having the power to control the water movement, water can be released when there is a high demand for electricity. The dams helps with irrigation but create some discrepancies for natural habitat like fishes. '''discrepancies isn't the right word. do you mean that dams help irrigate land but might cause other problems, such as changing the natural habitat of fish? '''<br />
<br />
== Types of Hydropower Plants ==<br />
<br />
Micro Hydropower<br />
<br />
<br />
Small Hydropower<br />
<br />
<br />
Large Hydrpower<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Impoundment'''<br />
<br />
Impoundment is the most common type of hydroelectric power plants. This system of a larger hydropower plant requires a dam to store a river in a reservoir. Water is controlled and released to meet the electricity needs or to maintain reservoir levels. Electricity is produced when water is released, allowing water to flow through a turbine, which then spins the turbine, activating a generator that produced the electricity needed. <ref>"Wind and Hydropower Technology Programs." Energy Effecientcy and Renewable Energy. 9 Aug. 2005. U.S. Department of Energy. 28 Oct. 2008 <http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydro_plant_types.html>.</ref> [[Image:Impoundment.jpg|Impoundment.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Diversion'''<br />
<br />
Diversion is another also known as "run-of-water". It may or may not require a dam in the process of producing electricity, but it channels river through a canal or penstock. <ref>"Wind and Hydropower Technology Programs." Energy Effecientcy and Renewable Energy. 9 Aug. 2005. U.S. Department of Energy. 28 Oct. 2008 <http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydro_plant_types.html>.</ref> [[Image:Diversion.jpg|Diversion.jpg]]<br />
<br />
'''Pumped Storage'''<br />
<br />
During a period when demand of electricity is high, water is released into the lower reservoir to generate electricity. When the demands for electricity is low, the pumped storage facility stores the energy by pumping water from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir. <ref>"Wind and Hydropower Technology Programs." Energy Effecientcy and Renewable Energy. 9 Aug. 2005. U.S. Department of Energy. 28 Oct. 2008 <http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydro_plant_types.html>.</ref> [[Image:Pumped_storage.jpg|Pumped_storage.jpg]]<br />
<br />
== Different Forms of Hydropower ==<br />
<br />
Tidal Power<br />
<br />
Wave Power<br />
<br />
Water Wheel<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Costs ==<br />
<br />
Many people are discouraged by the initial cost to build plants for renewable energy. It is expensive and very capital intensive. Renewable energy plants are more expensive to build and operate than natural gas and coal plants. Hydropower plants are usually located in rural areas were there are flowing rivers and falls. The power is easily available in these remote areas. When it comes to the populated cities, transportation of the renewable Hydropower electricity is more difficult. Transmission lines are required to deliver the power necessary. The investment is very useful in the long run. Generating and producing the power from Hydropower is very cheap. <ref>Energy Information Administration. Dept. of Energy. 25 Oct. 2008 <http://eia.doe.gov>.</ref> <br />
<br />
<br />
== United States new Policy to Encourage Renewable Energy ==<br />
<br />
In recent years, the U.S. government began giving tax incentives for renewable energy. The Renewable Electricity Production Tax credit was also introduced to encourage an increase in renewable energy. Each State of the United states now has a Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS) in which each states require their energy providers to generate or acquire a certain percentage of generation from renewable energy. The Renewable Energy Certificate/credit (REC) is built into the RPS system. This allows the electricity providers of each state to sell renewable energy certificates/credit. With the proceeds, new investments in renewable energy projects can be made. <ref>Energy Information Administration. Dept. of Energy. 25 Oct. 2008 <http://eia.doe.gov>.</ref> <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Risk Analysis ==<br />
<br />
There are some risks involved with developing hydropower plants. Due to the effects of global warming, some weather patterns are already beginning to alter. The change in precipitation pattern posses a great threat to any projects. Decreased stream and river flows can threaten energy resources. Not only will hydropower be effected, but also in nuclear energy production. Some areas of the world may gain an increase in annual rainfall, while other regions may experience a decrease in precipitation. The effects of altered precipitation include a diminished water supply, decrease in water quality, and greater flood risk as well as droughts. Society is hesitant in building newer hydropower plants because of the environmental threats, as well as the climate change itself shifting with precipitation patters. <ref>Mann, Michael, and Lee R. Kump. Dire Predictions : Understanding Global Warming. Grand Rapids: Dorling Kindersley, Incorporated, 2008.</ref> The creation of electricity through hydropower is cheap. But if water becomes scarce in areas were they once flourished, then the prices might drastically increase. Currently, the world's population is exponentially growing. The water demand to supply water for everyone will also increase as population grows, even though the availability of clean water will become scarce.<br />
Hydropower projects have a negative impact on the river ecosystem.<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references/></div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Green_Building&diff=645
Green Building
2008-11-03T01:50:02Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: </p>
<hr />
<div>In the United States alone, the building sector is responsible for 72% of electricity consumption, 39% of energy use, and 38% of carbon dioxide emissions. These numbers prove that it is necessary to build green in order to ensure the well being of the environment. In fact, by building green, there can be up to 35% of carbon dioxide reductions. <ref>"Green Building Facts." September 2008. United States Green Building Council. 27 Oct 2008 <http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=1718.</ref> Countries, private sectors, and individuals have responded to these statistics and are partaking in the green revolution. They have found that building green is economically and environmentally beneficial. <br />
<br />
In the United States, green buildings are labeled and certified by the United States Green Building Council (USGBC) Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED). There are four levels at which environmentally sustainable buildings can be categorized: LEED Certified, LEED Silver Certified, LEED Gold Certified, and LEED Platinum Certified. To effectively categorize and measure the efficiency of the buildings, certification points are awarded in numerous categories including, but not limited to indoor air quality, material and resource conservation, and sustainable sites. The points correlate with the efficiency and sustainability of the building. <br />
<br />
Countries such as Canada, India, and China have used the LEED certification standards to measure green buildings. Many other countries, however, have their own measuring system. For example, Australia has the Green Star Program, Japan has the Comprehensive Assessment System for Building Environmental Efficiency (CASBEE), and Great Britain has the BRE Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM). These systems work because they give concrete guidelines that help architects, engineers, and developers successfully build green.<br />
<br />
Governments enforce and encourage developers to reach green building certification standards through policy. In cities and states throughout the United States there are tax benefits to building green. In Nevada, specifically, private development projects that achieve LEED Silver Certification can receive property tax abatement of up to 50 percent. For most projects, the tax abatement is higher than the spending it takes to get the building Silver Certified. As a result, developers actually make money from building green. <ref>Yudelson, Jerry. ''The Green Building Revolution''. Page 33. Washington D.C.: Island Press, 2008.</ref> In other countries, such as Holland, there are strict laws and programs aimed at reducing energy use in the building sector. With enforced laws and incentives, developers have no choice but to go green. <br />
<br />
Developers, however, have realized that with or without policies, sustainable building is still beneficial economically. Green buildings, when compared to conventional buildings, use 30 percent less energy. Through energy savings alone, a 100,000 square foot building can save over half a million dollars within twenty years. Therefore, by investing in green buildings, developers have the potential to save over ten times the initial investment. <ref>Kats, Greg. "The Costs and Financial Benefits of Green Building." California's Sustainable Building Task Force. Page 19. October 2003. United States Green Building Council Leadership.</ref>The upfront cost of building green may be a bit more costly, but it is a good investment because in the long run, it saves a large sum of money. <br />
<br />
Not only will green building save money in energy consumption, but it will also add more value to the property in the real estate market. If capitalization rates remain the same at 6 percent, the value of a building with LEED, or any other equivalent certification standards, may increase by $625,000. The value of conventional buildings, on the other hand, will decrease over time. Richard Cook, a prominent architect states, “In five years, it will be clear that buildings not reaching the highest standard of sustainability will become obsolete.”<ref>Yudelson, Jerry. ''The Green Building Revolution''. Page 27-32. Washington D.C: Island Press, 2008.</ref> If private sectors and countries do not invest in green building now, it may be a disadvantage for them in the future.<br />
Despite all of the benefits of sustainable buildings, there is a still a number of developers, mostly in the private sector, that are reluctant to build green. This is because “in private work the biggest barrier is the unequal distribution of benefits between developers and tenants.” <ref>Yudelson, Jerry. ''The Green Building Revolution''. Page 64. Washington D.C: Island Press, 2008.</ref> Developers, the ones who pay the initial costs do not receive the benefits. Instead, it is the tenants that do. However, this will change because as green building becomes more and more popular, the extra costs will drop.<br />
<br />
There is a misconception that green building is much more costly than conventional buildings. In a test of randomly selected buildings, it was “indicated that there was no statistically significant [cost] difference between the LEED population and the non-LEED population.”<ref>Langdon, Davis, and Lisa Fay Matthiessen, and Peter Morris “Costing Green: A Comprehensive Cost Database and Budgeting Methodology.” Page 19. United States Building Council Leadership.</ref> Costs of square feet in both types of buildings fluctuated. This shows that green buildings, like conventional ones, can be built in a cost-effective manner. In fact, with more research and experience, experts will be able to find additional ways to reduce the cost of green building. Recently at Harvard University, with careful planning, developers and architects were able to complete a LEED Platinum building at no additional cost. <ref>“46 Blackstone Renovation Case Study.” May 2006. Harvard Green Campus Initiative. 27 Oct 2008.<http://www.districtenergy.org/pdfs/08CampConference/BlackstoneCaseStudy.pdf>.</ref>If planned well, it is possible to build green with little cost and without going over budget. <br />
<br />
Small, low cost changes can make vast amounts of differences. As stated by Yung Ho Chang, the Head of the Department of Architecture at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, “a design that reduces only a fraction of the typical energy consumption is better than none.” <ref>Feireiss, Kristin, and Lukas Feireiss. ''Architecture of Change: Sustainability and Humanity in the Built Environment.'' Page 137. Berlin: Gestalten, 2008.</ref> There are many easy ways to save energy within a building. Energy efficient lights with occupancy and daylight sensors can be installed and trees can be planted around the building to act as shade and lower the need for air conditioning. In designs, developers can strategically place driveways on the north or south side of building, depending on the region, to either reduce heat buildup or help melt the snow. <ref>Wilson, Alex. “Greening Federal Facilities.” Second Edition. Page 34. United States Department of Energy, May 2001.</ref> Small additions and details like these are very important and should not be overlooked. Each adjustment can save hundreds of dollars in energy savings. And hundreds of dollars add up. <br />
<br />
Green building tends to be cheaper in areas where materials and resources are readily available. In most cases, urban areas are able to obtain these resources easier than rural areas. The same goes for construction waste management. “While urban projects are typically able to achieve these points for minimal costs impact, rural projects may see cost greater impacts.” <ref>Langdon, Davis. Lisa Fay Matthiessen. Peter Morris “Costing Green: A Comprehensive Cost Database and Budgeting Methodology.” Page 10. United States Building Council Leadership.</ref> As a result, green building projects tend to be located in major cities such as New York, Washington D.C., Boston, Seattle, and Portland. Although cities only account for 2% of the world land surface, they are responsible for over 75% of resource and energy consumption. <ref>Feireiss, Kristin, and Lukas Feireiss. ''Architecture of Change: Sustainability and Humanity in the Built Environment.'' Page 35. Berlin: Gestalten, 2008.</ref> More green building still needs to be done in cities worldwide. <br />
<br />
In each region, buildings need to be designed to accommodate for their particular climate. Buildings built in New England cannot be the same as those built in the Southwest. In the Southwest, the focus of green building should be to shade the home and maximize the use of solar power for energy. Contrastingly, in New England, the focus should be on insulation and sheltering the north side of a building. A more specific example of a building that fits perfectly in its natural environment is the “Cape Schanck House” on the coastline of Australia. The house is built low to the ground to withstand the strong ocean winds. At the same time, the design of the house allows it use those winds as natural ventilation to improve the indoor air quality. <ref>Feireiss, Kristin, and Lukas Feireiss. ''Architecture of Change: Sustainability and Humanity in the Built Environment.'' Page 52-60. Berlin: Gestalten, 2008.</ref><br />
<br />
Building green proves to be beneficial health wise. The United States Environmental Agency found that indoor air levels of pollutants range from 2.5 times to 100 times higher than outdoor levels. <ref>Hasegawa, Takahiko. ''Environmentally Sustainable Buildings.'' Page 28. Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2003.</ref> This can lead to serious health problems, as humans tend to spend about 90 percent of their time indoors. With improved air quality and more lighting, humans are able lead healthier lifestyles and are more productive. Green buildings, therefore, improve the performance of employees by up to 7%. Green building increases output, which in turn benefits the corporation economically. In a different study performed on schools, it was discovered that students in classrooms with more natural daylight performed approximately 20 percent better than those in classrooms with poor lighting. <ref> Kats, Greg. "The Costs and Financial Benefits of Green Building." California's Sustainable Building Task Force. Pg. v. October 2003. United States Green Building Council Leadership.</ref> By building green and improving the environment in which students’ study, towns and cities can strengthen their public school systems. <br />
<br />
Individuals, regions, and countries are taking the initiative and investing in green building. They have realized that by building green now, they will not only benefit economically, but they will also make, as stated by the authors Mann and Kump, “the interior space where [they] spend much of our time healthier and more comfortable.” <ref>Mann, Michael, and Lee Kump. ''Dire Predictions.'' New York, NY: DK Publishing Inc., 2008. </ref> The green building revolution has taken off and more and more green buildings are being built everyday. What will you do to contribute?<br />
<br />
'''Try checking out what other people have done with the organization of their sites. You might benefit from having a few clearly defined sections with labels instead of a long essay piece. Most Wikipedia sites are in this segmented form rather than essay form. Some examples of sections you could have are: Background, Methods, Economic Costs, Health, and Conclusion.''' <br />
==Notes==<br />
<br />
<br />
<references/></div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Green_Building&diff=644
Green Building
2008-11-03T01:49:45Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: /* Notes */</p>
<hr />
<div>In the United States alone, the building sector is responsible for 72% of electricity consumption, 39% of energy use, and 38% of carbon dioxide emissions. These numbers prove that it is necessary to build green in order to ensure the well being of the environment. In fact, by building green, there can be up to 35% of carbon dioxide reductions. <ref>"Green Building Facts." September 2008. United States Green Building Council. 27 Oct 2008 <http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=1718.</ref> Countries, private sectors, and individuals have responded to these statistics and are partaking in the green revolution. They have found that building green is economically and environmentally beneficial. <br />
<br />
In the United States, green buildings are labeled and certified by the United States Green Building Council (USGBC) Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED). There are four levels at which environmentally sustainable buildings can be categorized: LEED Certified, LEED Silver Certified, LEED Gold Certified, and LEED Platinum Certified. To effectively categorize and measure the efficiency of the buildings, certification points are awarded in numerous categories including, but not limited to indoor air quality, material and resource conservation, and sustainable sites. The points correlate with the efficiency and sustainability of the building. <br />
<br />
Countries such as Canada, India, and China have used the LEED certification standards to measure green buildings. Many other countries, however, have their own measuring system. For example, Australia has the Green Star Program, Japan has the Comprehensive Assessment System for Building Environmental Efficiency (CASBEE), and Great Britain has the BRE Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM). These systems work because they give concrete guidelines that help architects, engineers, and developers successfully build green.<br />
<br />
Governments enforce and encourage developers to reach green building certification standards through policy. In cities and states throughout the United States there are tax benefits to building green. In Nevada, specifically, private development projects that achieve LEED Silver Certification can receive property tax abatement of up to 50 percent. For most projects, the tax abatement is higher than the spending it takes to get the building Silver Certified. As a result, developers actually make money from building green. <ref>Yudelson, Jerry. ''The Green Building Revolution''. Page 33. Washington D.C.: Island Press, 2008.</ref> In other countries, such as Holland, there are strict laws and programs aimed at reducing energy use in the building sector. With enforced laws and incentives, developers have no choice but to go green. <br />
<br />
Developers, however, have realized that with or without policies, sustainable building is still beneficial economically. Green buildings, when compared to conventional buildings, use 30 percent less energy. Through energy savings alone, a 100,000 square foot building can save over half a million dollars within twenty years. Therefore, by investing in green buildings, developers have the potential to save over ten times the initial investment. <ref>Kats, Greg. "The Costs and Financial Benefits of Green Building." California's Sustainable Building Task Force. Page 19. October 2003. United States Green Building Council Leadership.</ref>The upfront cost of building green may be a bit more costly, but it is a good investment because in the long run, it saves a large sum of money. <br />
<br />
Not only will green building save money in energy consumption, but it will also add more value to the property in the real estate market. If capitalization rates remain the same at 6 percent, the value of a building with LEED, or any other equivalent certification standards, may increase by $625,000. The value of conventional buildings, on the other hand, will decrease over time. Richard Cook, a prominent architect states, “In five years, it will be clear that buildings not reaching the highest standard of sustainability will become obsolete.”<ref>Yudelson, Jerry. ''The Green Building Revolution''. Page 27-32. Washington D.C: Island Press, 2008.</ref> If private sectors and countries do not invest in green building now, it may be a disadvantage for them in the future.<br />
Despite all of the benefits of sustainable buildings, there is a still a number of developers, mostly in the private sector, that are reluctant to build green. This is because “in private work the biggest barrier is the unequal distribution of benefits between developers and tenants.” <ref>Yudelson, Jerry. ''The Green Building Revolution''. Page 64. Washington D.C: Island Press, 2008.</ref> Developers, the ones who pay the initial costs do not receive the benefits. Instead, it is the tenants that do. However, this will change because as green building becomes more and more popular, the extra costs will drop.<br />
<br />
There is a misconception that green building is much more costly than conventional buildings. In a test of randomly selected buildings, it was “indicated that there was no statistically significant [cost] difference between the LEED population and the non-LEED population.”<ref>Langdon, Davis, and Lisa Fay Matthiessen, and Peter Morris “Costing Green: A Comprehensive Cost Database and Budgeting Methodology.” Page 19. United States Building Council Leadership.</ref> Costs of square feet in both types of buildings fluctuated. This shows that green buildings, like conventional ones, can be built in a cost-effective manner. In fact, with more research and experience, experts will be able to find additional ways to reduce the cost of green building. Recently at Harvard University, with careful planning, developers and architects were able to complete a LEED Platinum building at no additional cost. <ref>“46 Blackstone Renovation Case Study.” May 2006. Harvard Green Campus Initiative. 27 Oct 2008.<http://www.districtenergy.org/pdfs/08CampConference/BlackstoneCaseStudy.pdf>.</ref>If planned well, it is possible to build green with little cost and without going over budget. <br />
<br />
Small, low cost changes can make vast amounts of differences. As stated by Yung Ho Chang, the Head of the Department of Architecture at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, “a design that reduces only a fraction of the typical energy consumption is better than none.” <ref>Feireiss, Kristin, and Lukas Feireiss. ''Architecture of Change: Sustainability and Humanity in the Built Environment.'' Page 137. Berlin: Gestalten, 2008.</ref> There are many easy ways to save energy within a building. Energy efficient lights with occupancy and daylight sensors can be installed and trees can be planted around the building to act as shade and lower the need for air conditioning. In designs, developers can strategically place driveways on the north or south side of building, depending on the region, to either reduce heat buildup or help melt the snow. <ref>Wilson, Alex. “Greening Federal Facilities.” Second Edition. Page 34. United States Department of Energy, May 2001.</ref> Small additions and details like these are very important and should not be overlooked. Each adjustment can save hundreds of dollars in energy savings. And hundreds of dollars add up. <br />
<br />
Green building tends to be cheaper in areas where materials and resources are readily available. In most cases, urban areas are able to obtain these resources easier than rural areas. The same goes for construction waste management. “While urban projects are typically able to achieve these points for minimal costs impact, rural projects may see cost greater impacts.” <ref>Langdon, Davis. Lisa Fay Matthiessen. Peter Morris “Costing Green: A Comprehensive Cost Database and Budgeting Methodology.” Page 10. United States Building Council Leadership.</ref> As a result, green building projects tend to be located in major cities such as New York, Washington D.C., Boston, Seattle, and Portland. Although cities only account for 2% of the world land surface, they are responsible for over 75% of resource and energy consumption. <ref>Feireiss, Kristin, and Lukas Feireiss. ''Architecture of Change: Sustainability and Humanity in the Built Environment.'' Page 35. Berlin: Gestalten, 2008.</ref> More green building still needs to be done in cities worldwide. <br />
<br />
In each region, buildings need to be designed to accommodate for their particular climate. Buildings built in New England cannot be the same as those built in the Southwest. In the Southwest, the focus of green building should be to shade the home and maximize the use of solar power for energy. Contrastingly, in New England, the focus should be on insulation and sheltering the north side of a building. A more specific example of a building that fits perfectly in its natural environment is the “Cape Schanck House” on the coastline of Australia. The house is built low to the ground to withstand the strong ocean winds. At the same time, the design of the house allows it use those winds as natural ventilation to improve the indoor air quality. <ref>Feireiss, Kristin, and Lukas Feireiss. ''Architecture of Change: Sustainability and Humanity in the Built Environment.'' Page 52-60. Berlin: Gestalten, 2008.</ref><br />
<br />
Building green proves to be beneficial health wise. The United States Environmental Agency found that indoor air levels of pollutants range from 2.5 times to 100 times higher than outdoor levels. <ref>Hasegawa, Takahiko. ''Environmentally Sustainable Buildings.'' Page 28. Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2003.</ref> This can lead to serious health problems, as humans tend to spend about 90 percent of their time indoors. With improved air quality and more lighting, humans are able lead healthier lifestyles and are more productive. Green buildings, therefore, improve the performance of employees by up to 7%. Green building increases output, which in turn benefits the corporation economically. In a different study performed on schools, it was discovered that students in classrooms with more natural daylight performed approximately 20 percent better than those in classrooms with poor lighting. <ref> Kats, Greg. "The Costs and Financial Benefits of Green Building." California's Sustainable Building Task Force. Pg. v. October 2003. United States Green Building Council Leadership.</ref> By building green and improving the environment in which students’ study, towns and cities can strengthen their public school systems. <br />
<br />
Individuals, regions, and countries are taking the initiative and investing in green building. They have realized that by building green now, they will not only benefit economically, but they will also make, as stated by the authors Mann and Kump, “the interior space where [they] spend much of our time healthier and more comfortable.” <ref>Mann, Michael, and Lee Kump. ''Dire Predictions.'' New York, NY: DK Publishing Inc., 2008. </ref> The green building revolution has taken off and more and more green buildings are being built everyday. What will you do to contribute?<br />
<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<br />
<br />
<references/></div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Green_Building&diff=643
Green Building
2008-11-03T01:49:32Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: </p>
<hr />
<div>In the United States alone, the building sector is responsible for 72% of electricity consumption, 39% of energy use, and 38% of carbon dioxide emissions. These numbers prove that it is necessary to build green in order to ensure the well being of the environment. In fact, by building green, there can be up to 35% of carbon dioxide reductions. <ref>"Green Building Facts." September 2008. United States Green Building Council. 27 Oct 2008 <http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=1718.</ref> Countries, private sectors, and individuals have responded to these statistics and are partaking in the green revolution. They have found that building green is economically and environmentally beneficial. <br />
<br />
In the United States, green buildings are labeled and certified by the United States Green Building Council (USGBC) Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED). There are four levels at which environmentally sustainable buildings can be categorized: LEED Certified, LEED Silver Certified, LEED Gold Certified, and LEED Platinum Certified. To effectively categorize and measure the efficiency of the buildings, certification points are awarded in numerous categories including, but not limited to indoor air quality, material and resource conservation, and sustainable sites. The points correlate with the efficiency and sustainability of the building. <br />
<br />
Countries such as Canada, India, and China have used the LEED certification standards to measure green buildings. Many other countries, however, have their own measuring system. For example, Australia has the Green Star Program, Japan has the Comprehensive Assessment System for Building Environmental Efficiency (CASBEE), and Great Britain has the BRE Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM). These systems work because they give concrete guidelines that help architects, engineers, and developers successfully build green.<br />
<br />
Governments enforce and encourage developers to reach green building certification standards through policy. In cities and states throughout the United States there are tax benefits to building green. In Nevada, specifically, private development projects that achieve LEED Silver Certification can receive property tax abatement of up to 50 percent. For most projects, the tax abatement is higher than the spending it takes to get the building Silver Certified. As a result, developers actually make money from building green. <ref>Yudelson, Jerry. ''The Green Building Revolution''. Page 33. Washington D.C.: Island Press, 2008.</ref> In other countries, such as Holland, there are strict laws and programs aimed at reducing energy use in the building sector. With enforced laws and incentives, developers have no choice but to go green. <br />
<br />
Developers, however, have realized that with or without policies, sustainable building is still beneficial economically. Green buildings, when compared to conventional buildings, use 30 percent less energy. Through energy savings alone, a 100,000 square foot building can save over half a million dollars within twenty years. Therefore, by investing in green buildings, developers have the potential to save over ten times the initial investment. <ref>Kats, Greg. "The Costs and Financial Benefits of Green Building." California's Sustainable Building Task Force. Page 19. October 2003. United States Green Building Council Leadership.</ref>The upfront cost of building green may be a bit more costly, but it is a good investment because in the long run, it saves a large sum of money. <br />
<br />
Not only will green building save money in energy consumption, but it will also add more value to the property in the real estate market. If capitalization rates remain the same at 6 percent, the value of a building with LEED, or any other equivalent certification standards, may increase by $625,000. The value of conventional buildings, on the other hand, will decrease over time. Richard Cook, a prominent architect states, “In five years, it will be clear that buildings not reaching the highest standard of sustainability will become obsolete.”<ref>Yudelson, Jerry. ''The Green Building Revolution''. Page 27-32. Washington D.C: Island Press, 2008.</ref> If private sectors and countries do not invest in green building now, it may be a disadvantage for them in the future.<br />
Despite all of the benefits of sustainable buildings, there is a still a number of developers, mostly in the private sector, that are reluctant to build green. This is because “in private work the biggest barrier is the unequal distribution of benefits between developers and tenants.” <ref>Yudelson, Jerry. ''The Green Building Revolution''. Page 64. Washington D.C: Island Press, 2008.</ref> Developers, the ones who pay the initial costs do not receive the benefits. Instead, it is the tenants that do. However, this will change because as green building becomes more and more popular, the extra costs will drop.<br />
<br />
There is a misconception that green building is much more costly than conventional buildings. In a test of randomly selected buildings, it was “indicated that there was no statistically significant [cost] difference between the LEED population and the non-LEED population.”<ref>Langdon, Davis, and Lisa Fay Matthiessen, and Peter Morris “Costing Green: A Comprehensive Cost Database and Budgeting Methodology.” Page 19. United States Building Council Leadership.</ref> Costs of square feet in both types of buildings fluctuated. This shows that green buildings, like conventional ones, can be built in a cost-effective manner. In fact, with more research and experience, experts will be able to find additional ways to reduce the cost of green building. Recently at Harvard University, with careful planning, developers and architects were able to complete a LEED Platinum building at no additional cost. <ref>“46 Blackstone Renovation Case Study.” May 2006. Harvard Green Campus Initiative. 27 Oct 2008.<http://www.districtenergy.org/pdfs/08CampConference/BlackstoneCaseStudy.pdf>.</ref>If planned well, it is possible to build green with little cost and without going over budget. <br />
<br />
Small, low cost changes can make vast amounts of differences. As stated by Yung Ho Chang, the Head of the Department of Architecture at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, “a design that reduces only a fraction of the typical energy consumption is better than none.” <ref>Feireiss, Kristin, and Lukas Feireiss. ''Architecture of Change: Sustainability and Humanity in the Built Environment.'' Page 137. Berlin: Gestalten, 2008.</ref> There are many easy ways to save energy within a building. Energy efficient lights with occupancy and daylight sensors can be installed and trees can be planted around the building to act as shade and lower the need for air conditioning. In designs, developers can strategically place driveways on the north or south side of building, depending on the region, to either reduce heat buildup or help melt the snow. <ref>Wilson, Alex. “Greening Federal Facilities.” Second Edition. Page 34. United States Department of Energy, May 2001.</ref> Small additions and details like these are very important and should not be overlooked. Each adjustment can save hundreds of dollars in energy savings. And hundreds of dollars add up. <br />
<br />
Green building tends to be cheaper in areas where materials and resources are readily available. In most cases, urban areas are able to obtain these resources easier than rural areas. The same goes for construction waste management. “While urban projects are typically able to achieve these points for minimal costs impact, rural projects may see cost greater impacts.” <ref>Langdon, Davis. Lisa Fay Matthiessen. Peter Morris “Costing Green: A Comprehensive Cost Database and Budgeting Methodology.” Page 10. United States Building Council Leadership.</ref> As a result, green building projects tend to be located in major cities such as New York, Washington D.C., Boston, Seattle, and Portland. Although cities only account for 2% of the world land surface, they are responsible for over 75% of resource and energy consumption. <ref>Feireiss, Kristin, and Lukas Feireiss. ''Architecture of Change: Sustainability and Humanity in the Built Environment.'' Page 35. Berlin: Gestalten, 2008.</ref> More green building still needs to be done in cities worldwide. <br />
<br />
In each region, buildings need to be designed to accommodate for their particular climate. Buildings built in New England cannot be the same as those built in the Southwest. In the Southwest, the focus of green building should be to shade the home and maximize the use of solar power for energy. Contrastingly, in New England, the focus should be on insulation and sheltering the north side of a building. A more specific example of a building that fits perfectly in its natural environment is the “Cape Schanck House” on the coastline of Australia. The house is built low to the ground to withstand the strong ocean winds. At the same time, the design of the house allows it use those winds as natural ventilation to improve the indoor air quality. <ref>Feireiss, Kristin, and Lukas Feireiss. ''Architecture of Change: Sustainability and Humanity in the Built Environment.'' Page 52-60. Berlin: Gestalten, 2008.</ref><br />
<br />
Building green proves to be beneficial health wise. The United States Environmental Agency found that indoor air levels of pollutants range from 2.5 times to 100 times higher than outdoor levels. <ref>Hasegawa, Takahiko. ''Environmentally Sustainable Buildings.'' Page 28. Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2003.</ref> This can lead to serious health problems, as humans tend to spend about 90 percent of their time indoors. With improved air quality and more lighting, humans are able lead healthier lifestyles and are more productive. Green buildings, therefore, improve the performance of employees by up to 7%. Green building increases output, which in turn benefits the corporation economically. In a different study performed on schools, it was discovered that students in classrooms with more natural daylight performed approximately 20 percent better than those in classrooms with poor lighting. <ref> Kats, Greg. "The Costs and Financial Benefits of Green Building." California's Sustainable Building Task Force. Pg. v. October 2003. United States Green Building Council Leadership.</ref> By building green and improving the environment in which students’ study, towns and cities can strengthen their public school systems. <br />
<br />
Individuals, regions, and countries are taking the initiative and investing in green building. They have realized that by building green now, they will not only benefit economically, but they will also make, as stated by the authors Mann and Kump, “the interior space where [they] spend much of our time healthier and more comfortable.” <ref>Mann, Michael, and Lee Kump. ''Dire Predictions.'' New York, NY: DK Publishing Inc., 2008. </ref> The green building revolution has taken off and more and more green buildings are being built everyday. What will you do to contribute?<br />
<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<br />
Try checking out what other people have done with the organization of their sites. You might benefit from having a few clearly defined sections with labels instead of a long essay piece. Most Wikipedia sites are in this segmented form rather than essay form. Some examples of sections you could have are: Background, Methods, Economic Costs, Health, and Conclusion. <br />
<br />
<references/></div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Geothermal_Power&diff=642
Geothermal Power
2008-11-03T01:48:00Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: </p>
<hr />
<div>Charlie Brewer<br />
Fall 2008<br />
<br />
<br />
There is no one solution to global warming. Considering no one miracle technology exists that can single handedly control climate change, cutting carbon emissions change will take efforts on many fronts. Fortunately, the collective utilization of current technologies can lead to a solution. Geothermal power can and must play a large part in controlling climate change, as it is a technologically sound and economical natural resource. '''I'd add this last sentence to the beginning of the next paragraph, and do away with the other three, very general sentences.'''<br />
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<br />
Geothermal power utilizes the earth’s natural heat. The heat increases with depth, approximately three degrees Celsius per one hundred meters,<ref>Dickson , Mary H., and Mario Fenelli. ''Geothermal Energy''. Paris: UNESCO, 2003.</ref> and is primarily generated by the decay of radioactive isotopes in rocks.<ref>Duffield, Wendell A., and J. H. Sass. ''Geothermal Energy: Clean Power from the Earth's Heat.'' Menlo Park, Calif: U.S. Geological Survey, 2003.</ref> If all of the heat that escapes into the atmosphere could be captured, it would be sufficient to provide electricity for the entire world.<ref>Duffield, Wendell A., and J. H. Sass. ''Geothermal Energy: Clean Power from the Earth's Heat.'' Menlo Park, Calif: U.S. Geological Survey, 2003.</ref> There is no technology to capture all of this heat energy, but systems have been created that harness some of it. The majority of these systems are located where two of the earth’s six plates meet, which also happens to be volcanic regions marked by comparatively shallow heat sources.<ref>Dickson , Mary H., and Mario Fenelli. ''Geothermal Energy''. Paris: UNESCO, 2003.</ref> This particularly strong geothermal area is known as the “Ring of Fire” and runs along the Pacific coast of North and South America as well as along much of the Pacific coast of Asia.<ref>Nowak, Rachel. "Who needs coal when you can have deep heat: just by mining heat from subterranean rock we could supply the world with affordable green power.(Technology)." New Scientist 199.2665 (July 19, 2008): 24(2). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <br />
<http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> <br />
<br />
<br />
Geothermal energy is a particularly clean alternative energy source that provides energy efficiently and economically. It releases only thirteen percent of the carbon dioxide per unit electricity that coal does, fifteen percent of the carbon dioxide that oil does, and close to fifty percent of the carbon dioxide that natural gas omits.<ref>Duffield, Wendell A., and J. H. Sass. ''Geothermal Energy: Clean Power from the Earth's Heat.'' Menlo Park, Calif: U.S. Geological Survey, 2003.</ref> Out of other renewable energy sources, Glitnir Bank has calculated that it is by far the cheapest energy source<ref>Duffield, Wendell A., and J. H. Sass. ''Geothermal Energy: Clean Power from the Earth's Heat.'' Menlo Park, Calif: U.S. Geological Survey, 2003.</ref> and some estimate it as being close to 30% more profitable than other clean energy sources.<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> Building geothermal plants, which normally takes between three and five years, is remarkably quicker than building a nuclear power plant, but is, however, more drawn out than the six or so months required to build a wind energy field.<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> Geothermal energy has the absolute advantage for electricity per unit of land of renewable energy sources. Additionally, unlike other energy supplies, geothermal power can be found anywhere and at any time since the temperature inside the earth’s crust hardly varies. Energy can be produced at night, unlike solar power, and on completely windless days, unlike wind power. It is also a flexible energy in the sense that it can be used on a large scale or a small scale; it can provide energy for a single household or for an entire city. This is a strong distinction from nuclear energy for example, as nobody would own his or her own personal nuclear power plant. <br />
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<br />
On the most fundamental level, understanding the conversion of geothermal heat to energy is relatively straightforward. This process requires a heat source, a reservoir and a fluid.<ref>Dickson , Mary H., and Mario Fenelli. ''Geothermal Energy''. Paris: UNESCO, 2003.</ref> A heat source can be anywhere inside the earth’s crust, a reservoir entails the needs for the rocks to be permeable and the fluid - water - acts as the carrier of energy. After drilling into a zone fulfilling all of these requirements, steam rises up through a pipe to the surface of earth, where it passes through a generator and is then normally returned through a separate pipe to the heat source.<ref>Duffield, Wendell A., and J. H. Sass. ''Geothermal Energy: Clean Power from the Earth's Heat.'' Menlo Park, Calif: U.S. Geological Survey, 2003.</ref> Traditionally, the assumption was that a heat source would have to be at least two hundred degrees Celsius to be economical, but a new technology in Alaska has been able to economically generate electricity at only 160 degrees Celsius.<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> This type of generation is primarily used for large-scale production; an individual would be unlikely to have such an apparatus in their backyard. <br />
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Individuals can play a '''role''' in switching to geothermal energy. Direct use applications offer the opportunity to take advantage of the earth's heat on a much smaller scale. The primary use of direct use applications is in heat pumps.<ref>Dickson , Mary H., and Mario Fenelli. ''Geothermal Energy''. Paris: UNESCO, 2003.</ref> These have a higher initial cost than fossil fuel heaters, but operating expenses are remarkably lower.<ref>Dickson , Mary H., and Mario Fenelli. ''Geothermal Energy''. Paris: UNESCO, 2003.</ref> The Delta-Montrose Electric Association calculates that about one million ground based heat pumps are currently in use, and save more than 21.2 million barrels of crude oil per year. The effort can be seen around the entire globe too. More than 200,000 apartments in Paris are heated by geothermal systems.<ref>Duffield, Wendell A., and J. H. Sass. ''Geothermal Energy: Clean Power from the Earth's Heat.'' Menlo Park, Calif: U.S. Geological Survey, 2003.</ref> Consumers are choosing geothermal systems because they recognize the money that can be saved by these products. While they represent a large startup cost, people are recognizing that they can save money with a geothermal, self-fueling system and are helping to cut oil consumption. These smaller individual decisions add up to help reduce global warming. <br />
<br />
<br />
Industries are also starting to recognize the promise of large geothermal plants. In August of 2008 $28.1 million were raised at a Nevada state auction that sold the rights to build geothermal plants on state land.<ref>Howell, Katie. "Geothermal Energy: Nevada lease sale brings record $28M." E&E News P.M. August 08, 2008 29 Oct 2008 <http://lexis-nexis.com/envuniv/document?_m=3b55c9718988></ref> The fact that there was an auction demonstrates that there is more demand for property to build plants on than there is a supply of such land. Industries are anxious to have a piece of geothermal power, as is evidenced by the large bids. The increased industrial interest can also be seen in the fact that geothermal projects have increased by twenty percent since January.<ref>Howell, Katie. "Geothermal Energy: Nevada lease sale brings record $28M." E&E News P.M. August 08, 2008 29 Oct 2008 <http://lexis-nexis.com/envuniv/document?_m=3b55c9718988></ref> Industries are accepting the large start up costs of geothermal plants because they believe profits can be made from the earth’s heat. This acceleration can partly be accounted for by high oil prices and the resulting universal switch to alternate fuel sources, but a large part of it can be attributed to the strong future of geothermal energy. <br />
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<br />
Geothermal systems have an even more promising outlook. A technology known as enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) is on the brink of becoming a practical system.<ref>Nowak, Rachel. "Who needs coal when you can have deep heat: just by mining heat from subterranean rock we could supply the world with affordable green power.(Technology)." New Scientist 199.2665 (July 19, 2008): 24(2). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <br />
<http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> This system is an extremely promising advancement in geothermal technology that generates power from hard dry rock. To do this, water is injected into such a rock with enough force to shatter it, leaving the rock permeable.<ref>Duffield, Wendell A., and J. H. Sass. ''Geothermal Energy: Clean Power from the Earth's Heat.'' Menlo Park, Calif: U.S. Geological Survey, 2003.</ref> Wastewater from nearby towns is then run into the hot rock, creating steam to power a generator at the surface.<ref>Duffield, Wendell A., and J. H. Sass. ''Geothermal Energy: Clean Power from the Earth's Heat.'' Menlo Park, Calif: U.S. Geological Survey, 2003.</ref> The advantage of EGS is that it can generate power just about anywhere; it does not need to be drilled into scarce permeable wet rock.<ref>Nowak, Rachel. "Who needs coal when you can have deep heat: just by mining heat from subterranean rock we could supply the world with affordable green power.(Technology)." New Scientist 199.2665 (July 19, 2008): 24(2). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> <br />
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EGS can make geothermal energy a significant source of geothermal energy. Currently, geothermal energy supplies around one percent of the United State's energy, but EGS has the potential to drastically increase geothermal production. A report from MIT states, “If EGS can be proved economical on a commercial scale, its development potential will be limitless in many countries.”<ref>Nowak, Rachel. "Who needs coal when you can have deep heat: just by mining heat from subterranean rock we could supply the world with affordable green power.(Technology)." New Scientist 199.2665 (July 19, 2008): 24(2). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> The MIT report goes on to estimate that a $386 million investment over eight years in EGS would result in one hundred GW (giggawatts) of economical electricity by 2050.<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> Combined with current geothermal generation, this would amount to around twenty percent of the nations energy generation.<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> EGS is not a highly theoretical resource, as the MIT report maintains that a relatively modest investment by the government would lead to the finalization of EGS. In fact, plants have already been produced in France and Germany.<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> Investors have begun to poor resources towards the development of EGS as they recognize its potential to become a large and very profitable industry.<ref>Nowak, Rachel. "Who needs coal when you can have deep heat: just by mining heat from subterranean rock we could supply the world with affordable green power.(Technology)." New Scientist 199.2665 (July 19, 2008): 24(2). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> Still some are uncomfortable increasing government spending, especially given the current financial crisis. In reality this spending pales in comparison to the cost of items such as the defense budget and the $700 billion stimulus package, both of which could both alleviated by geothermal energy. <br />
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Having a reliable energy source in the United States would enhance national security. The country would no longer be vulnerable to oil exporting countries exploitation and would not have to worry about being cut off from oil if a controversial policy was passed. Geothermal power plants also enhance national security more than other energy sources because of the quantity of plants; terrorists could not attack one plant and have it devastate the entire country. This implies that defense spending could be lowered due to the increased security that geothermal energy would create, which could help subsidize its' $368 million investment. <br />
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Geothermal energy could also help to address the current financial crisis in two ways. First, it would cut costs, as countries would not have to import all of their energy, but would rather have a reliable and relatively cheep national energy source. Second, if EGS can be perfected in the United States, than it will a new profitable industry to help refuel the economy and generate jobs.<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> This technology could play a part in an economic recovery as it would both cut spending and increase salaries and the necessary $368 million investment is substantially smaller than the $700 billion bailout. <br />
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As geothermal energy continues to become more prevalent, positive cultural changes can also be expected. To understand the relationship between the two, one must examine the utilization of geothermal energy in Iceland. In the lifetime of a single generation, Iceland was able to change from one of Europe’s poorest countries to one of the world’s wealthiest, largely due to the development of geothermal energy.<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> Currently geothermal energy produces 54% of the country’s electricity.<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> In terms of cultural significance, President Grimsson of Iceland writes, “the development of geothermal resources has had a desirable impact on social life in Iceland,” and goes on to describe the development of prominent cities around strong geothermal systems in once rural areas or his country.<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> People in Iceland want to live around the resources both for the cheap energy, but also to live in a city with outdoor hot swimming pools filled with geothermal water, sports facilities and happy people.<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> This example highlights geothermal plant's ability not to repulse locals, but instead to have the opposite impact. Geothermal plants are truly clean and not intimidating, like nuclear plants, and they rearrange cultures around exploitable geothermal systems. While Iceland may be an extreme case, the potential for economic growth is possible for more developed nations too. People will be drawn to cheap energy and even desolate areas in Oregon or New Mexico could develop prominent towns with geothermal plants. This same cultural evolution can be seen in whole countries, like Nicaragua, Costa Rica, El Salvador, the Phillipines and Indonesia, where geothermal plants are being installed to eliminate dependence on oil. <ref>Duffield, Wendell A., and J. H. Sass. ''Geothermal Energy: Clean Power from the Earth's Heat.'' Menlo Park, Calif: U.S. Geological Survey, 2003.</ref> The cultures of these developing countries have the potential to change and excel just like Iceland’s did.<br />
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Any nation can join Iceland in leading a change to geothermal energy. Senator Jeff Bingaman of New Mexico stated in September of 2007, “The United States can also be a world leader in developing a clean, renewable geothermal resource base.”<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> Geothermal energy has been ignored for too long. Senator Jon Lester of Montana said at the same time “I’m a little bit embarrassed by the fact that … we’ve got tremendous resources in this country and literally, nothing has been done.”<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> Even though oil prices may be falling, geothermal energy cannot be ignored any longer. It is “embarrassing” that world powers were ignorant of the vast energy resources beneath their very feet, and action must be taken to include geothermal energy into a significant supplier of global energy. Whether the goal of 20% of energy from geothermal plants can be met in the next fifty years or not, geothermal power has the capability to play a significant part in the solution of global warming and must be included in the effort to control carbon emissions. '''Try not to add too much of your own opinion to this site. It's supposed to be facts and suggestions, not how you feel (ex: embarrased, excited, etc).'''<br />
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'''Try checking out what other people have done with the organization of their sites. You might benefit from having a few clearly defined sections with labels instead of a long essay piece. Most Wikipedia sites are in this segmented form rather than essay form. Some examples of sections you could have are: Background, Economics, Individual Participation, Participation of the Industrial Sector, Geothermal Power and the 2008 Financial crisis, Politics, etc.'''<br />
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== Notes ==<br />
<references/></div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Geothermal_Power&diff=641
Geothermal Power
2008-11-03T01:45:17Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: </p>
<hr />
<div>Charlie Brewer<br />
Fall 2008<br />
<br />
<br />
There is no one solution to global warming. Considering no one miracle technology exists that can single handedly control climate change, cutting carbon emissions change will take efforts on many fronts. Fortunately, the collective utilization of current technologies can lead to a solution. Geothermal power can and must play a large part in controlling climate change, as it is a technologically sound and economical natural resource. '''I'd add this last sentence to the beginning of the next paragraph, and do away with the other three, very general sentences.'''<br />
<br />
<br />
Geothermal power utilizes the earth’s natural heat. The heat increases with depth, approximately three degrees Celsius per one hundred meters,<ref>Dickson , Mary H., and Mario Fenelli. ''Geothermal Energy''. Paris: UNESCO, 2003.</ref> and is primarily generated by the decay of radioactive isotopes in rocks.<ref>Duffield, Wendell A., and J. H. Sass. ''Geothermal Energy: Clean Power from the Earth's Heat.'' Menlo Park, Calif: U.S. Geological Survey, 2003.</ref> If all of the heat that escapes into the atmosphere could be captured, it would be sufficient to provide electricity for the entire world.<ref>Duffield, Wendell A., and J. H. Sass. ''Geothermal Energy: Clean Power from the Earth's Heat.'' Menlo Park, Calif: U.S. Geological Survey, 2003.</ref> There is no technology to capture all of this heat energy, but systems have been created that harness some of it. The majority of these systems are located where two of the earth’s six plates meet, which also happens to be volcanic regions marked by comparatively shallow heat sources.<ref>Dickson , Mary H., and Mario Fenelli. ''Geothermal Energy''. Paris: UNESCO, 2003.</ref> This particularly strong geothermal area is known as the “Ring of Fire” and runs along the Pacific coast of North and South America as well as along much of the Pacific coast of Asia.<ref>Nowak, Rachel. "Who needs coal when you can have deep heat: just by mining heat from subterranean rock we could supply the world with affordable green power.(Technology)." New Scientist 199.2665 (July 19, 2008): 24(2). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <br />
<http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> <br />
<br />
<br />
Geothermal energy is a particularly clean alternative energy source that provides energy efficiently and economically. It releases only thirteen percent of the carbon dioxide per unit electricity that coal does, fifteen percent of the carbon dioxide that oil does, and close to fifty percent of the carbon dioxide that natural gas omits.<ref>Duffield, Wendell A., and J. H. Sass. ''Geothermal Energy: Clean Power from the Earth's Heat.'' Menlo Park, Calif: U.S. Geological Survey, 2003.</ref> Out of other renewable energy sources, Glitnir Bank has calculated that it is by far the cheapest energy source<ref>Duffield, Wendell A., and J. H. Sass. ''Geothermal Energy: Clean Power from the Earth's Heat.'' Menlo Park, Calif: U.S. Geological Survey, 2003.</ref> and some estimate it as being close to 30% more profitable than other clean energy sources.<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> Building geothermal plants, which normally takes between three and five years, is remarkably quicker than building a nuclear power plant, but is, however, more drawn out than the six or so months required to build a wind energy field.<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> Geothermal energy has the absolute advantage for electricity per unit of land of renewable energy sources. Additionally, unlike other energy supplies, geothermal power can be found anywhere and at any time since the temperature inside the earth’s crust hardly varies. Energy can be produced at night, unlike solar power, and on completely windless days, unlike wind power. It is also a flexible energy in the sense that it can be used on a large scale or a small scale; it can provide energy for a single household or for an entire city. This is a strong distinction from nuclear energy for example, as nobody would own his or her own personal nuclear power plant. <br />
<br />
<br />
On the most fundamental level, understanding the conversion of geothermal heat to energy is relatively straightforward. This process requires a heat source, a reservoir and a fluid.<ref>Dickson , Mary H., and Mario Fenelli. ''Geothermal Energy''. Paris: UNESCO, 2003.</ref> A heat source can be anywhere inside the earth’s crust, a reservoir entails the needs for the rocks to be permeable and the fluid - water - acts as the carrier of energy. After drilling into a zone fulfilling all of these requirements, steam rises up through a pipe to the surface of earth, where it passes through a generator and is then normally returned through a separate pipe to the heat source.<ref>Duffield, Wendell A., and J. H. Sass. ''Geothermal Energy: Clean Power from the Earth's Heat.'' Menlo Park, Calif: U.S. Geological Survey, 2003.</ref> Traditionally, the assumption was that a heat source would have to be at least two hundred degrees Celsius to be economical, but a new technology in Alaska has been able to economically generate electricity at only 160 degrees Celsius.<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> This type of generation is primarily used for large-scale production; an individual would be unlikely to have such an apparatus in their backyard. <br />
<br />
<br />
Individuals can play a '''role''' in switching to geothermal energy. Direct use applications offer the opportunity to take advantage of the earth's heat on a much smaller scale. The primary use of direct use applications is in heat pumps.<ref>Dickson , Mary H., and Mario Fenelli. ''Geothermal Energy''. Paris: UNESCO, 2003.</ref> These have a higher initial cost than fossil fuel heaters, but operating expenses are remarkably lower.<ref>Dickson , Mary H., and Mario Fenelli. ''Geothermal Energy''. Paris: UNESCO, 2003.</ref> The Delta-Montrose Electric Association calculates that about one million ground based heat pumps are currently in use, and save more than 21.2 million barrels of crude oil per year. The effort can be seen around the entire globe too. More than 200,000 apartments in Paris are heated by geothermal systems.<ref>Duffield, Wendell A., and J. H. Sass. ''Geothermal Energy: Clean Power from the Earth's Heat.'' Menlo Park, Calif: U.S. Geological Survey, 2003.</ref> Consumers are choosing geothermal systems because they recognize the money that can be saved by these products. While they represent a large startup cost, people are recognizing that they can save money with a geothermal, self-fueling system and are helping to cut oil consumption. These smaller individual decisions add up to help reduce global warming. <br />
<br />
<br />
Industries are also starting to recognize the promise of large geothermal plants. In August of 2008 $28.1 million were raised at a Nevada state auction that sold the rights to build geothermal plants on state land.<ref>Howell, Katie. "Geothermal Energy: Nevada lease sale brings record $28M." E&E News P.M. August 08, 2008 29 Oct 2008 <http://lexis-nexis.com/envuniv/document?_m=3b55c9718988></ref> The fact that there was an auction demonstrates that there is more demand for property to build plants on than there is a supply of such land. Industries are anxious to have a piece of geothermal power, as is evidenced by the large bids. The increased industrial interest can also be seen in the fact that geothermal projects have increased by twenty percent since January.<ref>Howell, Katie. "Geothermal Energy: Nevada lease sale brings record $28M." E&E News P.M. August 08, 2008 29 Oct 2008 <http://lexis-nexis.com/envuniv/document?_m=3b55c9718988></ref> Industries are accepting the large start up costs of geothermal plants because they believe profits can be made from the earth’s heat. This acceleration can partly be accounted for by high oil prices and the resulting universal switch to alternate fuel sources, but a large part of it can be attributed to the strong future of geothermal energy. <br />
<br />
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Geothermal systems have an even more promising outlook. A technology known as enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) is on the brink of becoming a practical system.<ref>Nowak, Rachel. "Who needs coal when you can have deep heat: just by mining heat from subterranean rock we could supply the world with affordable green power.(Technology)." New Scientist 199.2665 (July 19, 2008): 24(2). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <br />
<http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> This system is an extremely promising advancement in geothermal technology that generates power from hard dry rock. To do this, water is injected into such a rock with enough force to shatter it, leaving the rock permeable.<ref>Duffield, Wendell A., and J. H. Sass. ''Geothermal Energy: Clean Power from the Earth's Heat.'' Menlo Park, Calif: U.S. Geological Survey, 2003.</ref> Wastewater from nearby towns is then run into the hot rock, creating steam to power a generator at the surface.<ref>Duffield, Wendell A., and J. H. Sass. ''Geothermal Energy: Clean Power from the Earth's Heat.'' Menlo Park, Calif: U.S. Geological Survey, 2003.</ref> The advantage of EGS is that it can generate power just about anywhere; it does not need to be drilled into scarce permeable wet rock.<ref>Nowak, Rachel. "Who needs coal when you can have deep heat: just by mining heat from subterranean rock we could supply the world with affordable green power.(Technology)." New Scientist 199.2665 (July 19, 2008): 24(2). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> <br />
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EGS can make geothermal energy a significant source of geothermal energy. Currently, geothermal energy supplies around one percent of the United State's energy, but EGS has the potential to drastically increase geothermal production. A report from MIT states, “If EGS can be proved economical on a commercial scale, its development potential will be limitless in many countries.”<ref>Nowak, Rachel. "Who needs coal when you can have deep heat: just by mining heat from subterranean rock we could supply the world with affordable green power.(Technology)." New Scientist 199.2665 (July 19, 2008): 24(2). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> The MIT report goes on to estimate that a $386 million investment over eight years in EGS would result in one hundred GW (giggawatts) of economical electricity by 2050.<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> Combined with current geothermal generation, this would amount to around twenty percent of the nations energy generation.<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> EGS is not a highly theoretical resource, as the MIT report maintains that a relatively modest investment by the government would lead to the finalization of EGS. In fact, plants have already been produced in France and Germany.<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> Investors have begun to poor resources towards the development of EGS as they recognize its potential to become a large and very profitable industry.<ref>Nowak, Rachel. "Who needs coal when you can have deep heat: just by mining heat from subterranean rock we could supply the world with affordable green power.(Technology)." New Scientist 199.2665 (July 19, 2008): 24(2). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> Still some are uncomfortable increasing government spending, especially given the current financial crisis. In reality this spending pales in comparison to the cost of items such as the defense budget and the $700 billion stimulus package, both of which could both alleviated by geothermal energy. <br />
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Having a reliable energy source in the United States would enhance national security. The country would no longer be vulnerable to oil exporting countries exploitation and would not have to worry about being cut off from oil if a controversial policy was passed. Geothermal power plants also enhance national security more than other energy sources because of the quantity of plants; terrorists could not attack one plant and have it devastate the entire country. This implies that defense spending could be lowered due to the increased security that geothermal energy would create, which could help subsidize its' $368 million investment. <br />
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Geothermal energy could also help to address the current financial crisis in two ways. First, it would cut costs, as countries would not have to import all of their energy, but would rather have a reliable and relatively cheep national energy source. Second, if EGS can be perfected in the United States, than it will a new profitable industry to help refuel the economy and generate jobs.<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> This technology could play a part in an economic recovery as it would both cut spending and increase salaries and the necessary $368 million investment is substantially smaller than the $700 billion bailout. <br />
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As geothermal energy continues to become more prevalent, positive cultural changes can also be expected. To understand the relationship between the two, one must examine the utilization of geothermal energy in Iceland. In the lifetime of a single generation, Iceland was able to change from one of Europe’s poorest countries to one of the world’s wealthiest, largely due to the development of geothermal energy.<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> Currently geothermal energy produces 54% of the country’s electricity.<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> In terms of cultural significance, President Grimsson of Iceland writes, “the development of geothermal resources has had a desirable impact on social life in Iceland,” and goes on to describe the development of prominent cities around strong geothermal systems in once rural areas or his country.<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> People in Iceland want to live around the resources both for the cheap energy, but also to live in a city with outdoor hot swimming pools filled with geothermal water, sports facilities and happy people.<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> This example highlights geothermal plant's ability not to repulse locals, but instead to have the opposite impact. Geothermal plants are truly clean and not intimidating, like nuclear plants, and they rearrange cultures around exploitable geothermal systems. While Iceland may be an extreme case, the potential for economic growth is possible for more developed nations too. People will be drawn to cheap energy and even desolate areas in Oregon or New Mexico could develop prominent towns with geothermal plants. This same cultural evolution can be seen in whole countries, like Nicaragua, Costa Rica, El Salvador, the Phillipines and Indonesia, where geothermal plants are being installed to eliminate dependence on oil. <ref>Duffield, Wendell A., and J. H. Sass. ''Geothermal Energy: Clean Power from the Earth's Heat.'' Menlo Park, Calif: U.S. Geological Survey, 2003.</ref> The cultures of these developing countries have the potential to change and excel just like Iceland’s did.<br />
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Any nation can join Iceland in leading a change to geothermal energy. Senator Jeff Bingaman of New Mexico stated in September of 2007, “The United States can also be a world leader in developing a clean, renewable geothermal resource base.”<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> Geothermal energy has been ignored for too long. Senator Jon Lester of Montana said at the same time “I’m a little bit embarrassed by the fact that … we’ve got tremendous resources in this country and literally, nothing has been done.”<ref>United States. Geothermal Energy Initiative: Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, to Receive Testimony on S. 1543, a Bill to Establish a National Geothermal Initiative to Encourage Increased Production of Energy from Geothermal Resources by Creating a Program of Geothermal Research, Development, Demonstration and Commercial Application to Support the Achievement of a National Geothermal Energy Goal, September 26, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.</ref> Even though oil prices may be falling, geothermal energy cannot be ignored any longer. It is “embarrassing” that world powers were ignorant of the vast energy resources beneath their very feet, and action must be taken to include geothermal energy into a significant supplier of global energy. Whether the goal of 20% of energy from geothermal plants can be met in the next fifty years or not, geothermal power has the capability to play a significant part in the solution of global warming and must be included in the effort to control carbon emissions. <br />
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== Notes ==<br />
<references/></div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Geoengineering&diff=640
Geoengineering
2008-11-03T01:39:24Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: </p>
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<div>Out of all the possible alternatives for the solution to global warming, geoengineering is the most innovative and technologically aggressive of them '''whoa! you're not trying to win a global warming solutions competition, you know :)'''. Geoengineering does not refer to a single technology but to all proposals that alter the environment of our planet '''all proposals ever? it's more specific than that, right?'''. These proposals are intended to lessen the amount of carbon dioxide and solar rays hitting the earth. As the technology of the world grows more sophisticated, so do the possibilities for geoengineering expansion. Geoengineering may not be the final solution to solving global warming, but its applications can be used to dramatically lessen its effects.<br />
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Geoengineering is not focused on one single technology, but on large-scale alteration of the earth’s oceans, terrain, and atmosphere in order to slow down the global warming process. Geoengineering is an adaptation method, because it is only a short-term solution to a long term problem. It offers large scale solutions that could prevent a bad situation from getting worse and make a gradual implementation of mitigation methods possible. At the current pace of climate change, geoengineering may be a solution of final resort. '''confusing paragraph. i can't tell if you think geoengineering is a solution, a short-term quick-fix, or something entirely different.'''<br />
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== Solar Mirrors==<br />
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The implementation of solar reflectors into outer space is one of the most prominent of geoengineering schemes. One proposal involves putting 16 trillion refracting discs into space in order to reflect 2% of the suns rays.<ref>Sands, Derek. "Space mirrors to combat global warming? Scientists mull 'geoengineering' schemes." Inside Energy 09 06 2008 13. 29 Oct 2008 <http://www.lexisnexis.com/us/lnacademic/results/docview/docview.do?docLinkInd=true&risb=21_T4969175086&format=GNBFI&sort=RELEVANCE&startDocNo=1&resultsUrlKey=29_T4969175097&cisb=22_T4969175096&treeMax=true&treeWidth=0&csi=7989&docNo=1>.</ref> This would reduce the burden of the sun on the climate and offset the increased amount of carbon dioxide. Despite the promising technology, it requires vast amounts of resources which could only be attained through international cooperation.<ref>Song, Vivian. "Reflecting on the weather; Geoengineering explores futuristic solutions to our climate change problems." The Toronto Son 20 January, 2008 24. 29 Oct 2008 <http://www.lexisnexis.com/us/lnacademic/results/docview/docview.do?docLinkInd=true&risb=21_T4965913332&format=GNBFI&sort=RELEVANCE&startDocNo=1&resultsUrlKey=29_T4965913336&cisb=22_T4965913335&treeMax=true&treeWidth=0&csi=256740&docNo=2>.</ref> This method would also reduce annual rainfall by 2%, increasing the likelihood of droughts in an increasing populated world. In addition, solar shields have the potential to be used as weapons. <br />
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== Stratospheric Aerosols ==<br />
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The explosion of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 presented hope for input of sulfur into the atmosphere. The global ban on aerosols provided a precursor for effective global initiative to stop a potentially catastrophic event in the depletion of the ozone layer. Ironically, aerosols are now considered as part of the solution to slow down the global warming process.<ref>Wigley, T.M.L.. "A Combined Mitigation/Geoengineering Approach to Climate Stabilization ." Science Vol. 31420 October 2006 452-454. 21 Oct 2008 <http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/314/5798/452></ref>An immense volcanic eruption such as Mount Pinatubo correlates with global decrease in temperatures. The large amounts of ash serve as a blanket that blocks solar rays. The explosion of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 caused a dip in global temperatures, and presented an anomaly in the constantly increasing temperatures occurring each year. The input of half the amount of sulfur from Pinatubo into the atmosphere every year would counterbalance the effect of greenhouse gases. The risk is that all the sulfur can damage the stratospheric ozone layer.<ref>Wigley, T.M.L.. "A Combined Mitigation/Geoengineering Approach to Climate Stabilization ." Science Vol. 31420 October 2006 452-454. 21 Oct 2008 <http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/314/5798/452></ref> <br />
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== Ocean Sequestration and Fertilization ==<br />
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The vast surface area of the ocean also presents an opportunity to use technology in order to dump large amounts of carbon dioxide into the ocean. The ocean currently absorbs 80% of the carbon dioxide that is put into the atmosphere. One proposal for ocean sequestration involves tubes being placed underwater and phytoplankton bloom growth stimulated with iron in order to absorb the carbon dioxide.<ref>Zhou, S. and Flynn, P.C.. "GEOENGINEERING DOWNWELLING OCEAN CURRENTS: A COST ASSESSMENT." 29 April 2004 29 Oct 2008 <http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=0&did=923835881&SrchMode=1&sid=1&Fmt=6&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=PQD&TS=1225305296&clientId=28381&cfc=1>.</ref> This second phase is known as ocean fertilization and is designed to increase the amount of carbon dioxide the ocean can absorb. However, opposition on the issue is based on the uncertainties of the water’s chemistry. The massive amounts of carbon dioxide could change the ocean’s chemistry and further exacerbate the problem. It could present considerable damage to the organisms that exist in the oceans. <br />
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== Economics and Cost-Benefit Analysis ==<br />
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Geoengineering is an expensive, large scale enterprise. Many of these technologies need further research and have not been implemented yet. Taking into account the cost-benefit analysis, geoengineering becomes more lucrative when the effects of climate change become too demanding on the global population. In comparison to mitigation, geoengineering presents fixed costs for proposals. Mitigation, on the other hand, depends on the amount being decreased in emissions.<ref>Keith, David W.. "Geoengineering." Encyclopedia for Global Change Feb 2000 29 Oct 2008 <http://www.ucalgary.ca/~keith/papers/44.Keith.2002.GeoengOxfordEncy.f.pdf>.</ref> The estimated cost for downwelling ocean currents, or sequestering carbon in the ocean, is estimated to cost about $45 billion. However, this is something northern European states can afford.<ref>Zhou, S. and Flynn, P.C.. "GEOENGINEERING DOWNWELLING OCEAN CURRENTS: A COST ASSESSMENT." 29 April 2004 29 Oct 2008 <http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=0&did=923835881&SrchMode=1&sid=1&Fmt=6&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=PQD&TS=1225305296&clientId=28381&cfc=1>.</ref>Another benefit to this is that geoengineering does not involve a change in our oil-based economy, for better or for worse. <br />
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== Politics ==<br />
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Geoengineering does not present the problems in international law that mitigation in areas such as solar and wind power present. For the most part, geoengineering does not need the full participation of all international members in order to succeed. Most advanced nations could incur the cost, and would not face domestic opposition from the economic perspective.<ref>Keith, David W.. "Geoengineering." Encyclopedia for Global Change Feb 2000 29 Oct 2008 <http://www.ucalgary.ca/~keith/papers/44.Keith.2002.GeoengOxfordEncy.f.pdf>.</ref> Geoengineering would present no threat to the current lifestyle. Nevertheless, implementation but rather the risk associated with geoengineering presents political tension. Ocean sequestration and fertilization can cause friction in maritime boundary disputes. The risks in this respect are also uncertain, and fishing industries might be deeply affected.<ref>Keith, David W.. "Geoengineering." Encyclopedia for Global Change Feb 2000 29 Oct 2008 <http://www.ucalgary.ca/~keith/papers/44.Keith.2002.GeoengOxfordEncy.f.pdf>.</ref> <br />
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== Ethics ==<br />
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Geoengineering is a questionable method precisely because it deals with adapting to our heavy dependence on fossil fuels rather than returning our emissions to stable levels. The idea of fundamentally altering our planet to accommodate the needs of humans is not only risky but extremely selfish. Even supporters of geoengineering believe that it should be complimented with mitigation, and that it be implemented in times of dire need to buy more time for durable mitigation strategies. <ref>Song, Vivian. "Reflecting on the weather; Geoengineering explores futuristic solutions to our climate change problems." The Toronto Son 20 January, 2008 24. 29 Oct 2008 <http://www.lexisnexis.com/us/lnacademic/results/docview/docview.do?docLinkInd=true&risb=21_T4965913332&format=GNBFI&sort=RELEVANCE&startDocNo=1&resultsUrlKey=29_T4965913336&cisb=22_T4965913335&treeMax=true&treeWidth=0&csi=256740&docNo=2>.</ref><br />
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'''You might want to add something about political/social issues'''<br />
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== Notes ==<br />
<references/></div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Forest_management&diff=639
Forest management
2008-11-03T01:36:05Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: </p>
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<div>Here's a fun fact on forestry that I can guarantee that you did NOT know before reading it here:<br />
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''About one-sixth of the wood delivered to a construction site is never used. Instead, it's hauled to the landfill as wood waste scraps.'' <ref>"Forest Facts." Issues: Wildlands. 27 Aug 2004. National Resources Defense Council. 21 Oct 2008 <http://www.nrdc.org/land/forests/fforestf.asp></ref><br />
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“Climate change has been described as a problem with a huge ‘procrastination penalty’. With each passing year of inaction, stabilizing Earth’s climate becomes increasingly difficult.” <ref name="Mann"> Mann, Michael E., and Lee R. Krump. Dire Predictions Understanding Global Warming. First American Edition. New York: DK Publishing, Inc, 2008</ref> Global warming has made its face and dangerous consequences known to the world; enough for the human race to realize the impending danger of not doing anything about halting its progress. There are many solutions that have been proposed in order to mitigate carbon emissions into the atmosphere. One such solution is forest management. '''Honestly I would just start here. Those intro sentences are not necessary at all. Your site is made to be specific. '''The term forest management refers to the sustainable conservation and artificial controlling of forests in order to maintain and protect them as well as to prevent the consequences that arise when forest resources are abused. Global climate change is caused by the release of greenhouse gases, most importantly carbon, into the atmosphere. Trees and vegetation absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen in photosynthesis. Therefore the more trees around, the more carbon absorbed from the atmosphere. This is why forest management can be a solution to mitigate global climate change '''Delete this sentence. You said the same thing a few sentences before.'''. In addition to this, the forestry industry releases carbon through the burning of wood and the usage of forest resources for combustion, manufacturing and transportation. The forestry industry was responsible for about 17% of the total greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere.<ref name="Mann"/> Although forest management is a potential solution to global climate change, it is not solely adopted for global warming mitigation but also to conserve and control the economics of forest resource exploitation and availability by local governments. However, we '''don't say we. wiki sites never really do that. '''will focus on the technical, economic, political, socio-cultural and geographical impacts of forest management as a potential global warming solution. <br />
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Forest management is commonly thought of as a decrease in the number of trees we cut down per year. Deforestation is a major part of the problem when it comes to forest depletion and degradation, but the answer to achieving sustainable forestry is much more complex than trying to get people and nations to stop cutting down trees. The management of forests can be done in several different ways, each with its own economic and socio-cultural impacts and with its own conditions required for success. Possible ways of managing forests could include natural regeneration, artificial regeneration, erosion control, fire prevention and control as well insect and disease control to name the major strategies that will be elaborated on here. <ref name="Forestry">"Forestry." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 Oct. 2008 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/213554/forestry</ref><br />
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The first strategy of forest management and one of the most important ones is natural regeneration. Natural regeneration involves a process of tree selection, be it in single trees or units of land; where trees are cut down (usually marketable ones such as timber or oak) in order to create gaps for future seedlings to grow. <ref>Duryea, Mary L.. "Forest Regeneration Methods: Natural Regeneration, Direct Seeding and Planting." University of Florida IFAS Extension. Mar 2000. Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. 26 Oct 2008 http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/FR024</ref> This ensures the best possible use of soil, light and space. Natural regeneration is not a rapid process and involves much planning and strategizing as to which trees should be felled, how much space should be left and how the forest will be regulated so that no more than the designated trees are removed from the forest space. It is important to remember that in natural regeneration, surrounding trees must be left standing to provide shelter for the seedlings and to prevent erosion and flooding.<br />
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Natural regeneration creates long term economic benefits at the cost of short term economic costs. One of these costs includes cutbacks for the people in the forestry industry and for governments. The reduction in the number of trees cut will cause a significant decrease in money brought in through forestry in the immediate future. However, the healthy regeneration of trees will provide more resources to be sustainably used. Once a sustainable system of forestry is implemented, the immediate costs will inevitably be detrimental as it involves a reduction in the mass felling that has occurred for decades. Governments can relieve this economic stress by providing subsidies for the locals in the forestry industry so their business can be sustained until the longer term economic benefits can be enjoyed. Governments must sternly institute policies regulating the limits and areas for sustainable forestry for this global warming solution to be successful.<br />
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The socio-cultural impacts of natural regeneration are largely linked to the short term economic impacts as populations that have been dependent on forestry and felling for centuries will be forced to give up years of tradition and employment. Tribal cultures in particular who are heavily dependent on wood as a resource for both commercial and sustainable farming and usage will be affected by the implementation of natural regeneration. <br />
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For natural regeneration to have a significant impact on the carbon footprint of a nation, it must be adopted on a large scale and over an extended period of time. Many trees take 15-20 years to mature from seedlings and this is the time necessary for the real benefits of natural regeneration to be available. Also, the environmental benefits of natural regeneration are seen in the long-term by the healthy regeneration of trees through seedlings using the improved soil, light and increased space. <ref name="Forestry"/> Therefore, the potential global warming solution of forest management should not be implemented on its own but alongside other strategies both in forest management as well as in other sectors (such as alternative energy or carbon taxing). <br />
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A second form of forest management which is very similar to natural generation is artificial regeneration. This involves the direct planting of seeds or the planting of seedlings by hand or machine. <ref>USDA Forest Service. 1989. INTERIM RESOURCE INVENTORY GLOSSARY. Document dated June 14, 1989. File 1900.Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 96 p.</ref> One major advantage of artificial regeneration over natural is that humans can modify the species inhabiting the area. Caution must be taken however that the species be adapted to the site it is planted in so as to avoid alien species from dominating the local ecosystem and interrupting the dynamic equilibrium. With the advanced technologies available today by huge enterprises such as Monsanto, seeds can be genetically modified to be a crop of high-yield or to mass produce seedlings. Through such technologies, orchards of trees of superior genetic quality can be created which maximizes the usage of the soil while maintaining sustainability. <ref name="Forestry"/> Artificial regeneration is much faster than natural regeneration due to genetically modified seeds, although it brings along risks with it that natural regeneration does not. Natural laws define natural regeneration and humans only facilitate it through strategic felling, compared to artificial regeneration where humans insert potentially harmful chemicals into the soil and ecosystems that can adversely affect consumers as well as the environment. Therefore special care must be taken and special regulation must be in place in order for artificial regeneration to achieve its potential as a global warming solution. <br />
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Planting seedlings is one of the most costly investments in production in the forestry industry. The process of artificial regeneration involves the selection of the species to plant, the density of the species that will be planted, the possibility of mixing species for adaptation, the prime season for planting and flourishing, preparation of the site prior to planting (such as enrichment of the soil or selective felling) and lastly, instituting the method of planting. <ref>Barnett, James P.. "ARTIFICIAL REGENERATION: AN ESSENTIAL COMPONENT OF LONGLEAF PINE ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION." Southern Research Station Headquarters. 2000. USDA. 28 Oct 2008 http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/9718 </ref> Every step in this procedure requires some measure of finances that vary depending on the scale of the artificial regeneration project. However, these steps require much specialist work and prior research and testing and is therefore more of a scientific exploration which requires significantly more money than natural regeneration would. “The efficacy of reforestation is contingent on favorable climate conditions. Deforested soils tend to dry out and they are often low in nutrients because most of the ecosystem nutrients were stored in the harvested trees.” <ref name="Mann"/> Concepts such as the one mentioned above need to be taken into account when planning both types of regeneration, but in particular artificial regeneration as it requires more human decision making.<br />
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The socio-cultural impacts of artificial regeneration are very similar to those of natural regeneration. In artificial regeneration, more leniency is allowed due to the ability to choose species and genetically modify seedlings to mass produce faster. Therefore local populations who are dependent on forestry resources will be enjoying the benefits faster than natural regeneration. This idea works vice versa as the costs will appear faster also. These may include chemical poisoning or the creation of super weeds (alien species resistant to pesticides) for example.<br />
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For artificial regeneration to have a significant impact, it should also be adopted on a large scale. However, it would be more functional than natural regeneration on a small scale as the seedlings can be genetically modified to mass produce. If implemented over a long period of time, artificial regeneration can lead to large economic and environmental benefits as carbon is absorbed by the increasing vegetation and available forestry resources increase exponentially over time. The benefits of artificial regeneration only increase over time but can also be reaped in the short term which is a large advantage of this management strategy. <br />
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A more policy-related strategy is one of control regarding erosion, fire prevention and insect and disease in the forests. The most common form of erosion control is a simple procedure in forest management; it involves felling one tree per unit area and creating a gap that is rapidly closed by the outward growth of the trees surrounding it. This therefore prevents the erosion of the soil due to overpopulation of trees and the lack of nutrients. <br />
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Forest fires do not occur often in tropical rainforests due to the constant precipitation and humidity; however they do run rampant in dry zones such as coniferous forests where both the air and natural fuel (weeds, trees, grass etc) are dry. It is a fact that nearly 95% of all forest fires are caused by people and lightning strikes account for only 1-2%, hence where the problem lies to be corrected. Forest fire prevention includes public education programs, hazard reduction and law enforcement, all which require significantly high amounts of time and money. The two steps involved in controlling forest fires are reducing risk and reducing hazard. <ref name="Forestry"/> Risk is controlled through the steps mentioned above for forest fire prevention, and hazard is reduced by splitting up a forest with alleyways in which all vegetation is removed so fires aren’t as easily spread. Hazard is also reduced by reducing the buildup of fuel such as debris and under canopy litter also to prevent the spread of a forest fire should it occur. <br />
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The final control strategy is insect and disease control. There are a large number of fungi, bacteria, viruses and insects in the natural environment, but despite popular assumption, most of these are beneficial as detritivores and are essential to many natural cycles of an ecosystem. The ones that are destructive are usually held down by their natural enemies and a balance is maintained by the laws of nature. However, insects and diseases that are entered from other sites or parts of the world cause a serious threat of potential epidemics as there is no natural control. Not surprisingly, the guilty party for the transportation of foreign insects, viruses and spores is globalization and the world becoming almost “flat” through the shrinking of time and space. To manage this, a process of selective thinning of susceptible trees keeps forests healthier as susceptible trees promote the build-up of detrimental cultures on the site. <ref name="Forestry"/><br />
<br />
Thinking economically, the most expensive control to implement is fire control as there are so many components to the risk prevention and hazard control, which is a continuous process that must be constantly maintained in the event of a forest fire '''reread sentence for clarity'''. '''The second most expensive method''' is the control of insect and disease populations as this is also done through pesticides and chemical methods to avoid plagues in the forest. Disease control strategies are often not economically friendly as it means a loss of vegetation and trees in an attempt to create a reduction in unwanted bacteria and insects. The most cost effective control method is erosion control as it involves the felling of only a few trees in an effort to make a gap for others. This involves strategizing and professional planning but is not as costly as the other control methods. <br />
<br />
One advantage of control strategies '''is '''that they are not so much about drastic change in habitual activity as they are about awareness and maintenance towards sustainability. In controlling fires, erosion and insect and disease cultures, local populations are benefitting in both the long and the short term from the consequences. Less disease means increased production in forest resources, less erosion means larger, healthier trees and less fires means less risk of losing resources. Then there is also the benefit of a healthier forest environment which definitely benefits cultures that are dependent on the forest and its resources.'''nix using the word \definitely\'''<br />
Control should occur on a large scale in every forest where erosion, fires, disease and insects cause a significant loss of trees and resources. In order for this strategy to productively manage forests, it needs to be done continuously. If control stops, the problem resumes. In implementing this strategy, there is a long-term commitment involved that must be upheld by the local government and the people involved in order to be successful.<br />
<br />
As seen in the above strategy propositions, forest management can have positive impacts as a potential solution to global climate change if properly regulated, instituted and maintained. Some of the implementation processes are long and economically draining, but each strategy proved to have positive long term benefits (and occasionally short term ones as well) environmentally, economically and socio-culturally. Forest management is not the solution for every nation or region to adopt. Nations whose carbon footprint is largely affected by forestry should begin implementing one or more of these strategies as seen most adequately suited for the region. Nations without large forests contributing to their carbon emission statistics should focus on other solutions such as: '''you don't really need to re-list all of these things. Just say: Nation without large forests could focus on other the other solutions to global warming outlined in this site.'''<br />
Agricultural Management <br />
Biofuels <br />
Biomass <br />
Carbon Storage and Sequestration <br />
Conservation and Efficiency <br />
Geoengineering <br />
Geothermal Power <br />
Green Building <br />
Hydropower <br />
Nuclear Energy <br />
Solar Power <br />
Transportation <br />
Waste <br />
Wind Power <br />
<br />
'''NOTES: First, try checking out what other people have done with the organization of their sites (I personally really like the way Nial structured his). You might benefit from having a few clearly defined sections with labels instead of a long essay piece. Most Wikipedia sites are in this segmented form rather than essay form. Some examples of sections you could have are: Background, Methods, Costs, Risks, and Conclusion'''<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references/></div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Conservation_and_Efficiency&diff=638
Conservation and Efficiency
2008-11-03T01:24:50Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: </p>
<hr />
<div>Conservation and efficiency is a necessary part of finding a solution to global warming. '''I'd delete that first sentence.'''Conservation is the act of reducing the amount of energy one uses and efficiency describes using less energy to accomplish the same task that one would normally do with more energy. The two are not mutually exclusive principles; conservation will come naturally if energy is used more efficiently. By using less energy we burn fewer fossil fuels and decrease our carbon footprint, helping to mitigate greenhouse gases and solve the problem of global warming. <br />
<br />
Energy efficiency truly depends on the effectiveness of the technology. Many advances in technology have been made that mitigate the amount of energy used by buildings, cars, and other appliances. In the transportation sector for the individual hybrid cars are an innovation that improves energy efficiency by combining electric engines and gasoline motors '''Reread this sentence for clarity'''. <ref>www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo</ref> By using unleaded fuel only when it is most efficient for your ride, one is emitting less carbon into the atmosphere. For example, a 2009 Toyota Prius Hybrid only emits 4.0o tons of carbon dioxide a year as opposed to a typical station wagon, like the Saab 9-3 Aero Combi AWI which emits 10.2 tons of carbon dioxide annually. Other features of hybrid cars that improve energy use are: regenerative braking, which converts energy normally wasted during braking into electricity, and an automatic start and shut off, which shuts off the engine when the vehicle comes to a stop. <ref>fueleconomy.gov </ref> Improving the design of transportation vehicles in general, whether they be non-hybrid cars, trains, or airplanes so that they are lighter and therefore require less energy would also improve fuel economy.<br />
<br />
The biggest consumer of energy is the industrial sector, which uses more than twenty eight percent of all energy <ref>www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo</ref> The '''most''' inefficient technology in this sector are motors '''what kind of motors??''', which consume as much as 63% of all industrial energy. There have recently been developments in technology that force premium-efficient motors having additional laminations that reduce energy loss and therefore increase efficiency. Changing low efficiency motors for the top ones in technology today use 18% less energy. <ref> http://www.accessscience.com.ezproxy.middlebury.edu/content.aspx?id=YB061840</ref>. Better technology in pipes that reduces leaks in steam distribution systems through boilers would also contribute greatly by causing less steam to be released, and therefore less energy would be lost every year, improving efficiency and causing fewer greenhouse gases to be emitted. <br />
<br />
Commercial buildings also have high energy outputs. Each year more than 100,000 megawatts of electrical power comes from commercial lighting in the day time. Compact Flourescent Light Bulbs use seventy five percent less energy than an incandescent bulb. Therefore, if one were to replace all of the millions of light bulbs in commercial buildings with Compact Flourescent bulbs, only 25,000 mega watts of electricity would be used. <ref> http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=cfls.pr_cfls</ref> Also, improving insulation technology so these buildings are better insulated and improving window technology so less heat energy escapes through the glass will significantly cut the amount of heat needed keep them at a comfortable temperature. These same measures can be taken in the residential sector, improving efficiency in people’s own homes. <br />
On an individual scale investing in technologies that improve efficiency and working to conserve energy will save a person money. For example, buying a Toyota Prius that gets 46 miles per gallon only costs a $1.58 to drive twenty five miles and has an annual fuel cost of 947 percent (assuming 2.91 gas price, 15000 miles of driving annuall, 45% of which is on the highway). Driving the previously mentioned Saab station wagon, which only gets an average of 18 miles per gallon, would cost you 4.04 to drive twenty five miles and $2427 dollars annually. Although an investment in a hybrid car would cost money at first, the returns on it are more than the investment and one’s financial situation is improved. <ref>www.fueleconomy.gov</ref> <br />
On a larger scale the cost to the U.S. economy for oil every year is close to $200 billion every year '''(you say every year twice)'''. By being more efficient in our energy '''use, '''less of our budget will need to be allocated to the purchase of fossil fuels. '''These actions will boost''' the economy and allow our government to invest elsewhere '''(you might not want to say ''our'' in reference to the US, because not all of your readers are going to be American.'''. Energy efficient standards for new buildings in the U.S.A. since preliminary measures have been taken have already generated at least $200billion in net energy savings. The creation and installation of new technological innovations in all of the sectors would create employment for people, which would continue to boost the economy. The savings in energy bills individuals would get would allow them to spend more on other things, further increasing productivity in the economy. <ref> Saving energy, growing jobs : how environmental protection promotes economic growth, profitability, innovation, and competition / David B. Goldstein. Tree Pub., c2007. Berkeley, Calif: Bay </ref> These economic benefits are a positive byproduct of the mitigation to greenhouses gases. <br />
<br />
These economic economical benefits are reasons for politicians to take the side of Conservation and Efficiency '''reread sentence for clarity'''. At this time of economic deficit anything to aid the economy would be beneficial. If the United States of America uses less oil, it will need to purchase less oil, reducing its dependence on foreign countries however there are reasons not to as well. '''reread that sentence, too. '''There is opposition to this that could sway political candidates against this global warming solution. Big oil conglomerates that fund political candidates would not benefit financially from fewer fuel purchases, and the politicians would not benefit financially if they lose some of their biggest sponsors. <br />
<br />
Taking the steps to conserve energy and use it more efficiently would have an impact on our society. Lifestyles would be altered '''(two very general statements)'''. The laid-back attitude many have towards conserving energy would need to change. Sacrifices of small luxuries, such as discontinuing large SUV’s, wearing a sweater instead of setting the thermostat higher during the winter, and less air conditioning in the summer would have to be made. People would have to forgo individual comforts like having their own car to drive to work every day and use public transportation or carpool. <br />
<br />
If governments wish to implement energy conservation they may raise the price energy. For those who are able to invest in energy efficient models of appliances large savings could be reaped and the standard of living would not change, if anything for many it could actually improve as the total cost of energy people would need to pay would actually decrease. A lot of stress may be placed on lower income households for they will not be able to afford the se new technologies and therefore will not save money, possibly decreasing the standard of living. If programs were implemented ensure everyone had access to efficient technologies then lower-income households would benefit.<br />
<br />
The effects of conservation and technology will be felt in different ways depending on where one lives. In an urban area it will be much easier to forsake the use of an individual car and use public transportation, for example. However in a city most initiatives will be about a broader picture, rather than about actions an individual takes. Insulation is a good example of this; in a rural setting building insulation is the individual owner’s responsibility; however living in a high rise apartment in the city makes it difficult for the individual to insulate their building. Building efficiency in cities will have to be mandated on a larger level. <br />
<br />
The sacrifices people make promote conservation and efficiency on an individual level, but these policies can be carried to local, state, and federal levels as well. Cities can mandate things, like Tuscan Arizona that recently passed a mandate saying landscapers must harvest their own rain water. <ref>Reese, April. "Tucson passes nation's first rainwater harvesting ordinance for commercial properties ." Land Letter 16 Oct. 2008. 21 Oct. 2008 <http://www.eenews.net/Landletter/2008/10/16/3/>. Most states have their own conservation commissions, such as the California Energy Commission which forecasts energy needs and keeps track of energy data, licensing thermal power plants fifty megawatts or larger, promoting energy efficiency through appliance and building standards, developing new technologies, and has the responsibility of enforcing all of these things to mitigate the state’s greenhouse gas emissions. <ref> http://www.energy.ca.gov/commission/index.html </ref> The federal government can also make mandates to weed out energy inefficient appliances, such as mandating all cars are under specific weight requirements, and forbidding imports of inefficient machinery. They can also allocate money to researching and developing buildings and commercial applications for these technologies. <ref> Energy Efficiency Promotion Act of 2007 : hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, first session, on S. 1115, to promote the efficient use of oil, natural gas, and electricity, reduce oil consumption, and heighten energy efficiency standards for consumer products and industrial equipment, and for other purposes, April 23, 2007. Washington : U.S. G.P.O. : For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O., 2007. </ref><br />
<br />
There are some risks that people may associate with conservation and efficiency. Take for example the California Energy Crisis from 2000 to 2001 where there was not sufficient energy for the entire state. Many people are worried this will happen if there are conservation mandates and major power plants are shut down; however this was not what happened with California, which was caused by the fact that California’s energy reserves were low because these power companies had gone bankrupt. Had California taken efforts earlier to use energy more efficiently there actually would not have been a crisis. People continue to misunderstand what’s going on, however, and believe that if the government takes massive steps to conserve energy, a similar disaster will occur. <ref> Saving energy, growing jobs : how environmental protection promotes economic growth, profitability, innovation, and competition / David B. Goldstein. Tree Pub., c2007. Berkeley, Calif: Bay </ref> <br />
<br />
Conserving energy by using it more efficiently will directly mitigate greenhouse gases. This solution is one of the easiest for us to begin doing and if employed alongside the other solutions will be help the world end global warming.<br />
<br />
'''NOTES: Try checking out what other people have done with the organization of their sites. You might benefit from having a few clearly defined sections with labels instead of a long essay piece. Most Wikipedia sites are in this segmented form rather than essay form. Some examples of sections you could have are: Background, Methods, Costs, Risks, and Conclusion. Also, you might want to look for a few more examples that don't just focus on cars. Your stuff on the industrial sector was really interesting, perhaps look more into that?'''</div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Conservation_and_Efficiency&diff=637
Conservation and Efficiency
2008-11-03T01:24:33Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: </p>
<hr />
<div>Conservation and efficiency is a necessary part of finding a solution to global warming. '''I'd delete that first sentence.'''Conservation is the act of reducing the amount of energy one uses and efficiency describes using less energy to accomplish the same task that one would normally do with more energy. The two are not mutually exclusive principles; conservation will come naturally if energy is used more efficiently. By using less energy we burn fewer fossil fuels and decrease our carbon footprint, helping to mitigate greenhouse gases and solve the problem of global warming. <br />
<br />
Energy efficiency truly depends on the effectiveness of the technology. Many advances in technology have been made that mitigate the amount of energy used by buildings, cars, and other appliances. In the transportation sector for the individual hybrid cars are an innovation that improves energy efficiency by combining electric engines and gasoline motors '''Reread this sentence for clarity'''. <ref>www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo</ref> By using unleaded fuel only when it is most efficient for your ride, one is emitting less carbon into the atmosphere. For example, a 2009 Toyota Prius Hybrid only emits 4.0o tons of carbon dioxide a year as opposed to a typical station wagon, like the Saab 9-3 Aero Combi AWI which emits 10.2 tons of carbon dioxide annually. Other features of hybrid cars that improve energy use are: regenerative braking, which converts energy normally wasted during braking into electricity, and an automatic start and shut off, which shuts off the engine when the vehicle comes to a stop. <ref>fueleconomy.gov </ref> Improving the design of transportation vehicles in general, whether they be non-hybrid cars, trains, or airplanes so that they are lighter and therefore require less energy would also improve fuel economy.<br />
<br />
The biggest consumer of energy is the industrial sector, which uses more than twenty eight percent of all energy <ref>www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo</ref> The '''most''' inefficient technology in this sector are motors '''what kind of motors??''', which consume as much as 63% of all industrial energy. There have recently been developments in technology that force premium-efficient motors having additional laminations that reduce energy loss and therefore increase efficiency. Changing low efficiency motors for the top ones in technology today use 18% less energy. <ref> http://www.accessscience.com.ezproxy.middlebury.edu/content.aspx?id=YB061840</ref>. Better technology in pipes that reduces leaks in steam distribution systems through boilers would also contribute greatly by causing less steam to be released, and therefore less energy would be lost every year, improving efficiency and causing fewer greenhouse gases to be emitted. <br />
<br />
Commercial buildings also have high energy outputs. Each year more than 100,000 megawatts of electrical power comes from commercial lighting in the day time. Compact Flourescent Light Bulbs use seventy five percent less energy than an incandescent bulb. Therefore, if one were to replace all of the millions of light bulbs in commercial buildings with Compact Flourescent bulbs, only 25,000 mega watts of electricity would be used. <ref> http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=cfls.pr_cfls</ref> Also, improving insulation technology so these buildings are better insulated and improving window technology so less heat energy escapes through the glass will significantly cut the amount of heat needed keep them at a comfortable temperature. These same measures can be taken in the residential sector, improving efficiency in people’s own homes. <br />
On an individual scale investing in technologies that improve efficiency and working to conserve energy will save a person money. For example, buying a Toyota Prius that gets 46 miles per gallon only costs a $1.58 to drive twenty five miles and has an annual fuel cost of 947 percent (assuming 2.91 gas price, 15000 miles of driving annuall, 45% of which is on the highway). Driving the previously mentioned Saab station wagon, which only gets an average of 18 miles per gallon, would cost you 4.04 to drive twenty five miles and $2427 dollars annually. Although an investment in a hybrid car would cost money at first, the returns on it are more than the investment and one’s financial situation is improved. <ref>www.fueleconomy.gov</ref> <br />
On a larger scale the cost to the U.S. economy for oil every year is close to $200 billion every year '''(you say every year twice)'''. By being more efficient in our energy '''use, '''less of our budget will need to be allocated to the purchase of fossil fuels. '''These actions will boost''' the economy and allow our government to invest elsewhere '''(you might not want to say ''our'' in reference to the US, because not all of your readers are going to be American.'''. Energy efficient standards for new buildings in the U.S.A. since preliminary measures have been taken have already generated at least $200billion in net energy savings. The creation and installation of new technological innovations in all of the sectors would create employment for people, which would continue to boost the economy. The savings in energy bills individuals would get would allow them to spend more on other things, further increasing productivity in the economy. <ref> Saving energy, growing jobs : how environmental protection promotes economic growth, profitability, innovation, and competition / David B. Goldstein. Tree Pub., c2007. Berkeley, Calif: Bay </ref> These economic benefits are a positive byproduct of the mitigation to greenhouses gases. <br />
<br />
These economic economical benefits are reasons for politicians to take the side of Conservation and Efficiency '''reread sentence for clarity'''. At this time of economic deficit anything to aid the economy would be beneficial. If the United States of America uses less oil, it will need to purchase less oil, reducing its dependence on foreign countries however there are reasons not to as well. '''reread that sentence, too. '''There is opposition to this that could sway political candidates against this global warming solution. Big oil conglomerates that fund political candidates would not benefit financially from fewer fuel purchases, and the politicians would not benefit financially if they lose some of their biggest sponsors. <br />
<br />
Taking the steps to conserve energy and use it more efficiently would have an impact on our society. Lifestyles would be altered '''(two very general statements)'''. The laid-back attitude many have towards conserving energy would need to change. Sacrifices of small luxuries, such as discontinuing large SUV’s, wearing a sweater instead of setting the thermostat higher during the winter, and less air conditioning in the summer would have to be made. People would have to forgo individual comforts like having their own car to drive to work every day and use public transportation or carpool. <br />
<br />
If governments wish to implement energy conservation they may raise the price energy. For those who are able to invest in energy efficient models of appliances large savings could be reaped and the standard of living would not change, if anything for many it could actually improve as the total cost of energy people would need to pay would actually decrease. A lot of stress may be placed on lower income households for they will not be able to afford the se new technologies and therefore will not save money, possibly decreasing the standard of living. If programs were implemented ensure everyone had access to efficient technologies then lower-income households would benefit.<br />
<br />
The effects of conservation and technology will be felt in different ways depending on where one lives. In an urban area it will be much easier to forsake the use of an individual car and use public transportation, for example. However in a city most initiatives will be about a broader picture, rather than about actions an individual takes. Insulation is a good example of this; in a rural setting building insulation is the individual owner’s responsibility; however living in a high rise apartment in the city makes it difficult for the individual to insulate their building. Building efficiency in cities will have to be mandated on a larger level. <br />
<br />
The sacrifices people make promote conservation and efficiency on an individual level, but these policies can be carried to local, state, and federal levels as well. Cities can mandate things, like Tuscan Arizona that recently passed a mandate saying landscapers must harvest their own rain water. <ref>Reese, April. "Tucson passes nation's first rainwater harvesting ordinance for commercial properties ." Land Letter 16 Oct. 2008. 21 Oct. 2008 <http://www.eenews.net/Landletter/2008/10/16/3/>. Most states have their own conservation commissions, such as the California Energy Commission which forecasts energy needs and keeps track of energy data, licensing thermal power plants fifty megawatts or larger, promoting energy efficiency through appliance and building standards, developing new technologies, and has the responsibility of enforcing all of these things to mitigate the state’s greenhouse gas emissions. <ref> http://www.energy.ca.gov/commission/index.html </ref> The federal government can also make mandates to weed out energy inefficient appliances, such as mandating all cars are under specific weight requirements, and forbidding imports of inefficient machinery. They can also allocate money to researching and developing buildings and commercial applications for these technologies. <ref> Energy Efficiency Promotion Act of 2007 : hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, first session, on S. 1115, to promote the efficient use of oil, natural gas, and electricity, reduce oil consumption, and heighten energy efficiency standards for consumer products and industrial equipment, and for other purposes, April 23, 2007. Washington : U.S. G.P.O. : For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O., 2007. </ref><br />
<br />
There are some risks that people may associate with conservation and efficiency. Take for example the California Energy Crisis from 2000 to 2001 where there was not sufficient energy for the entire state. Many people are worried this will happen if there are conservation mandates and major power plants are shut down; however this was not what happened with California, which was caused by the fact that California’s energy reserves were low because these power companies had gone bankrupt. Had California taken efforts earlier to use energy more efficiently there actually would not have been a crisis. People continue to misunderstand what’s going on, however, and believe that if the government takes massive steps to conserve energy, a similar disaster will occur. <ref> Saving energy, growing jobs : how environmental protection promotes economic growth, profitability, innovation, and competition / David B. Goldstein. Tree Pub., c2007. Berkeley, Calif: Bay </ref> <br />
<br />
Conserving energy by using it more efficiently will directly mitigate greenhouse gases. This solution is one of the easiest for us to begin doing and if employed alongside the other solutions will be help the world end global warming.<br />
<br />
NOTES: Try checking out what other people have done with the organization of their sites. You might benefit from having a few clearly defined sections with labels instead of a long essay piece. Most Wikipedia sites are in this segmented form rather than essay form. Some examples of sections you could have are: Background, Methods, Costs, Risks, and Conclusion. Also, you might want to look for a few more examples that don't just focus on cars. Your stuff on the industrial sector was really interesting, perhaps look more into that?</div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Carbon_Storage_and_Sequestration&diff=636
Carbon Storage and Sequestration
2008-11-03T01:17:36Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: </p>
<hr />
<div>Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is the simple idea that a large part of the CO2 that humans produce through the burning of fossil fuels can be trapped and pumped underground into cavities that will hold it there for hundreds of thousands of years. According to the IPCC, by 2050 21% to 45% of all human CO2 emissions could be captured <ref name="Rubin">Rubin, Edward, Leo Meyer, and Heleen de Corninck. “Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage: Technical Report.” Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC, 2005.</ref>. The foremost reason that CCS is considered intrinsic in most models of global warming mitigation is simple — coal. With China building two new coal-fired power plants a week <ref>"CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE: Burning question." The Engineer (Feb 25, 2008): 22. Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 27 Oct. 2008 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.</ref> and the United States’ continued dependence on coal, sequestration is one of few ways to offset the emissions from those plants. CCS is by no means a perfect solution, and a moratorium on coal-fired power plants would be much better in the short and long term. Barring that, however, CCS is an option that is being heavily considered. The technologies needed to do this are in various stages of implementation and development. Some exist, and more efficient and environmentally friendly methods show promise in development. <br />
<br />
Three different technologies exist for the capture and storage of carbon. The first of these — and the method that would be applied to conventional power plants — is post-combustion capture. This method is already used in other industrial contexts, and the technology is well understood. In post-combustion capture, CO2 is separated from other gases after the combustion of the fossil fuel. The second method of CO2 capture is pre-combustion, which is widely applicable to the production of fertilizer, as well as chemical and gaseous fuel. In this method of capture, the fossil fuel is partly oxidized, resulting in H2 and CO2 gasses <ref name="Rubin"/>. The H2 can be used for energy production while the CO2 is siphoned off. The third method of storage is oxy-fuel combustion, in which fuel is burned in oxygen instead of air. The result of this is a mixture of CO2 and water vapor in heated gaseous form. As the cool, the water vapor condenses first, leaving an almost pure stream of CO2 that can be sequestered <ref name="Simpson"> Simpson, Adam P. and A.J. Simon. "Second law comparison of oxy-fuel combustion and post-combustion carbon dioxide separation ." Energy Conversion and Management Nov. 2007 Vol. 48, Issue 11. 29 Oct. 2008 . <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2007.06.047>.</ref>. <br />
<br />
The three main components of carbon capture and storage are capture, transport and storage. Before it can be pumped underground, the carbon must first be trapped at the source of production, then transported from that source, and finally sequestered underground. The three established methods of capture are related above. The transportation of CO2 is usually done through pipeline, which is the cheapest form of transportation <ref name="Azar">Azar, Christian, Kristian Lindgren, Eric Larson, and Kenneth Mollersten. "Carbon capture and storage from fossil fuels and biomass--costs and potential role in stabilizing the atmosphere." Climatic Change 74.1-3 (Jan 2006): 47(33). 29 Oct. 2008. <http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=0&did=1041529361&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=6&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=PQD&TS=1225297032&clientId=28381>.</ref>. Currently, CO2 pipelines are used to transport CO2 to older oil fields, where it is injected into the oil field to pressurize any extra oil present to the surface. In most cases, the technology for CO2 capture, transport, and sequestration already exists, and in some cases is already in place for other means, such as the “Enhanced Oil Recovery” method discussed above.<br />
<br />
The most discussed form of sequestration — and the one best understood today — is geological storage, or geo-sequestration. In geo-sequestration, CO2 piped in from large point sources is injected directly underground into geological formations. At this point, the CO2 is generally in supercritical form, which means that it is highly condensed and acts as a liquid. The sites proposed thus far for sequestration are old gas and oil fields, un-mineable coal seams, and saline formations. The reason that old gas and oil fields are promising is because natural gasses could pool in those formations only because they form a trap of sorts. As most natural gasses have been stored in these geological formations for tens of millions of years, they are relatively reliable and permanent holding tanks for CO2. Another reason that the use old gas and oil fields for sequestration is attractive is that the cost of storage can be offset by the extraction of additional oil that is recovered. Also, humans have been addicted to fossil fuels for a long enough time to have very good geological knowledge of the placement and relative safety of oil wells <ref name="Gough">Gough, Clair and Simon Shackley. "Toward a Multi-Criteria Methodology for Assessment of Geological Carbon Storage Options." Climatic Change Jan. 2006 Vol. 74, Iss. 1-3. 29 Oct. 2008. <http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=0&did=1041529511&SrchMode=1&sid=4&Fmt=6&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=PQD&TS=1225297666&clientId=28381>.</ref>. <br />
<br />
CO2 can also be injected into coal seams that are un-mineable usually for issues of feasibility. CO2 binds very durably with coal, and therefore is a safe method of sequestration. The process of CO2 absorption into coal also releases methane gas, which can be used to offset the costs of sequestration <ref name="Haszeldine">Haszeldine, Stuart R.. "Deep Geological CO2 Storage: Principles Reviewed, and Prospecting for Bio-energy Disposal Sites ." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change Vol. 11, Iss. 2Mar. 2006 369-393. 29 Oct 2008. http://www.springerlink.com/content/9nk724156k63w6h5/fulltext.pdf</ref>. Of course, while the oil gained from injecting CO2 into old oil fields, and the methane gained from CO2’s injection into coal can be used to pay for the expensive technology involved, it only continues the cycle of reliance on fossil fuels. It also will reduce the net sequestration of CO2 from the atmosphere. The third group of formations proposed as sequestration sites are saline aquifers, which are large, and commonly occurring, underground aquifers holding salt brine that has to this point been deemed worthless. A benefit of saline aquifers is that they are much more common than spent oil fields, and therefore would greatly reduce the cost of transport from the point source. In contrast to oil fields, little is known about the geology of these aquifers, making it risky to use them as a sequestration site for a harmful substance. Without further geological surveying, the risk of leakage back into the atmosphere is much higher in this case than in the other two. There is also no energy payback — as there is in enhanced oil recovery and methane production — which make this option less attractive from an economic perspective <ref name="Haszeldine"/>. <br />
<br />
Ocean storage is a second proposed method. If CO2 is pumped far enough below the surface, estimated around a depth greater than 1000 meters, the circulation of sea water is so slow that it makes the method equivalent to permanent sequestration. However, the effects that this would have on ocean life, not to mention the overall health and circulation of our oceans, is poorly understood. What is known is that the effects would almost certainly be entirely negative <ref name="Rubin"/>. A third method of CCS is mineral storage. In this method CO2 is made to react exothermically with certain minerals, which in turn forms stable carbonates. This process has been occurring for millions of years in the formation of limestone, for example. To speed the process up to an acceptable time table would require additional energy <ref name="Rubin"/>. Both of these methods are considered to be more expensive options, and less is known about their foreseen success rate and negative effects than geo-sequestration. <br />
<br />
The costs associated with CCS are high. The IPCC estimates that electricity costs would be raised 25% to 50%, but there is still much uncertainty. The costs could be much greater than that. In its present state of development, the implementation of capture and storage technology would raise the energy use of a power plant 10% to 40% to create the same amount of electricity, and the emissions (now sequestered) would also rise. However, with the future trend towards carbon taxes and permits, the implementation of CCS could soon become cost effective <ref name="Azar"/>. The greatest cost and energy expenditure is associated with the capture and compression of CO2. The cost of transportation and physical sequestration depends heavily on the location of the point source, the distance the compressed CO2 must be transported, and the nature of the sequestration. <br />
<br />
Power plants using only post-combustion technology, and with no compensation money from oil or methane, accrue and extra cost of .02-.05 US$/Kilowatt hour (kWh). For power plants with pre combustion capture, the extra cost of CCS is .01-.03 US$/kWh <ref name="Rubin"/>. If energy compensations are made through the use of oil or methane, the extra cost can be reduced by .01-.02 US$/kWh. The average American household in 2006 used 920 kWh of electricity, at an average price of 10.40 cents/kWh <ref>"Frequently Asked Questions - Electricity." Official Energy Statistics from the US Government. 16 Apr. 2008. Energy Information Administration . 29 Oct 2008 <http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/ask/electricity_faqs.asp>.</ref>. Based on this data, the extra costs could be anywhere between a 0% price increase for some pre-combustion sites with compensation, and up to almost 50% price increase for post-combustion technology with no compensation. The largest cost reductions are seen in coal-fired power plants, where the most CO2 is emitted. There are many variables in this equation, which is the reason why the cost ranges are so wide. For example, the least cost is associated with plants where CO2 is already separated from other gasses, such as in hydrogen production. <br />
<br />
There are a number of disadvantages and uncertainties surrounding CCS that influence its effectiveness in the overall scheme of global warming mitigation. The main technical concern is the possibility of leakage of CO2 from storage sites or transportation pipelines — or even more devastating, a “burp” of CO2 from a storage site that has been amassed over a long time. This is obviously a grave issue, since the implementation of CCS requires an increase in energy and emissions output, it would only serve to increase the rate of CO2 emission if storage failed <ref>Herzog, Howard, Ken Caldeira, and John Reilly. "An issue of permanence: Assessing the effectiveness of temporary carbon storage." Climatic Change Aug. 2003 Vol 59, Iss. 3. 29 Oct. 2008 . <http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=0&did=659661331&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=6&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=PQD&TS=1225300239&clientId=28381>.</ref>. <br />
<br />
Aart from the technical uncertainties surrounding CCS, it must also be acknowledged that as a solution, it is only temporary. The idea of CCS follows in the footsteps of fossil fuel use — that is, using a resource as fast as possible until it is depleted. Would CCS lessen humanity’s addiction to fossil fuels? No, and there is even the possibility that if implemented alone, CCS could make people once again complacent about climate change. If it is going to be a useful tool in the fight against global warming, CCS can only be used as a technology to slow down carbon emissions, giving time for societies to reduce their dependence on fossil fuels. In this capacity it can possibly be a very powerful method of mitigation. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''NOTES: Try checking out what other people have done with the organization of their sites. You might benefit from having a few clearly defined sections with labels instead of a long essay piece. Most Wikipedia sites are in this segmented form rather than essay form. Some examples of sections you could have are: Background, Methods of Storage and Sequestration, Costs, Risks, and Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references/></div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Biomass&diff=635
Biomass
2008-11-03T01:14:19Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: /* Socio-cultural and Geographic Implications */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
<br />
When talked about as a part of the solution to Global Warming, Biomass refers to the conversion of organic material into fuel, which is known as biofuel '''Confusing sentence. Perhaps reword to simply read: Biomass is organic material that has been converted into biofuel.'''. The material used in biomass ranges from plants and trees to organic waste from factories or municipal dumps. Biomass is known as a renewable fuel because it takes energy from easily renewable sources, such as plants and waste. '''Reword of second half of sentence into a new sentence: It still does emit carbon into the atmosphere, but less so than more conventional forms of fuel, such as ____ and _____.''' <Ref> Kimes, Laura. Biomass Conversion: Emerging Technologies, Feedstocks, and Products Washington D.C, U.S. environmental protection agency, 2007.</Ref>. Fossil fuels are '''of limited quantity and are ''' destructive to the balance of carbon in the atmosphere because of their carbon cycle – the time it takes for new coal or oil to develop and ‘ingest’ the carbon that it emits when used as a fuel. '''A''' carbon cycle of this kind of energy takes incredibly long to complete and therefore cannot be considered biomass. '''slightly confused by this last sentence.'''<br />
<br />
In 2005, research from the Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, recently noted as a leader in the field of biomass<Ref> BioEnergy Trade, Copernicus Institute: the Netherlands. Oct. 26th 2008, [http://bioenergytrade.org/t40members/0000009610121840e/copernicusinstitute/index.html]. </Ref> concluded that approximately 10% percent of total energy used comes from biomass, “making biomass by far the most important renewable energy source used to date” <Ref> Faaij, Andre. "Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies.(Author abstract)." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11.2 (March 2006): 335(33). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 </Ref>. Because of its technological readiness, can become a viable and effective way to combat global warming, especially in the next few years. It does, however, come with certain obstacles.<br />
<br />
== Technology ==<br />
<br />
<br />
What about the technical process of biomass, at least in theory, makes it such an attractive solution? '''Nix the first sentence.''' The process of Biomass essentially mimics the natural process of carbon cycles, and, although it emits greenhouse gases, can create carbon neutral fuels if paired with forestation and protection of biodiversity (see: find correct Paragraph). When plants are alive, they consume carbon through photosynthesis, only to die and eventually release the carbon back into the atmosphere. This delicate balance is a symbiotic relationship – plants and trees need carbon to survive and the earth’s eco-system needs to maintain a certain level of carbon in order to function. Yet when humans began processing huge amounts of fossil fuels, such as coal or oil, it upset the balance of carbon in the atmosphere. In other words, the more biomass we create, the more unbalanced and non-renewable energy sources can be replaced with renewable ones. Waste biomass, on the other hand, goes through the same process as plants, trees, and crops, though it relies on a different justification. By taking advantage of the inevitable carbon emissions that waste creates, biomass can create methane based biofuel, which doesn’t add any more carbon to the atmosphere than the waste would emit already<Ref>Shanmugam, P., and N.J. Horan. "Simple and rapid methods to evaluate methane potential and biomass yield for a range of mixed solid wastes.(Report)." Bioresource Technology 100.1 (Jan 2009): 471(4). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008</Ref>. This is because public and industrial waste can contain dangerous toxins and release similar amounts of methane when left on its own. <br />
<br />
More specifically, the biomass process consists of collection of the organic/ waste material, the conversion of that matter to liquid known as feedstock, and the subsequent conversion of feedstock into biofuel. There are many technologies to convert feedstock into biofuels; they are usually categorized into thermochemical, biochemical, and chemical processes. Thermochemical strategies use heat to break down the feedstock, biochemical strategies use enzymes and bacteria, while chemical strategies use chemical reactions. Specific processes are usually chosen according to the matter the feedstock is comprised of<Ref>Kimes, Laura. Biomass Conversion: Emerging Technologies, Feedstocks, and Products Washington D.C, U.S. environmental protection agency, 2007.</Ref>. See the chart above for a more detailed summary of biomass techniques. '''Good info, but reread this section for clarity. I started to skim in the middle of the first paragraph.'''<br />
<br />
== Environmental Implications ==<br />
<br />
<br />
It is difficult to assess the environmental impact of biomass on a regional or national level because of the unique complexity of each individual biomass facility. Every unit has different ecosystems, whether agricultural, natural, or industrial, to draw resources from. As a result, the overall carbon output is a large part due to how well the biofuel material used from ecosystems is replenished so that that it can neutralize the carbon emitted by biomasses<Ref>Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. Paris: OECD, 2004, p. 151.</Ref>. So what can be said with confidence about the environmental effectiveness of biofuel? There is more consensus about the need for biofuel in the transportation sector, mainly because other renewable energies lack the technological efficiency needed to power transport. Biofuel does emit considerably less carbon than fossil fuel<Ref> "Scientists set sights on biomass to reduce fossil fuel dependence". 2006, Imperial College London. October 29th, 2008. http://www.physorg.com/news10331.html</Ref>, and can be implemented on a wider scale fairly easily. <br />
<br />
Biomass can play an important role in two related fields: sequestration of CO2 and renewable hydrogen power. Sequestration (hyperlink) is the capture of carbon that occurs after fuel has been created so that it doesn’t enter the atmosphere. If done in conjuction with biomass, sequestration could potentially solve one of its major obstacles – biomass could then be both renewable and close to carbon neutral. In fact, it is thought that combining biomass and sequestration can produce overall negative carbon emissions<Ref>Faaij, Andre. "Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies.(Author abstract)." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11.2 (March 2006): 335(33). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008.</Ref>. If combined with hydrogen power, another important piece of the puzzle in solving global warming<Ref>Pacala, S. and Socolow, R., "Stabilization Wedges: Solving the Climate Problem for the Next 50 Years with Current Technologies". 2004 www.sciencemag.org, October 28th, 2008.</Ref> sequestration from biomass can become a truly powerful force in solving this crisis. Renewable hydrogen power can be extracted through the biomass process, and since carbon is simply extracted from hydrogen<Ref>Faaij, Andre. "Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies.(Author abstract)." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11.2 (March 2006): 335(33). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008.</Ref>, creating hydrogen power using sequestration strategies can truly find an environmentally effective way to utilize biomass<Ref> Turner, A. John,"Sustainable Hydrogen Production". 2004, www.sciencemag.com, October 28th, 2008.</Ref>.<br />
<br />
== Socio-cultural and Geographic Implications ==<br />
<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the effectiveness of biomass largely depends on its geographical placement. Since biomass on its own does produce carbon emissions, there needs to be a balance of agricultural protection (keeping crop-land, forests, other eco-systems diverse and lush) and protection against deforestation (since wood is such an excellent source of biomass). In Middlebury, Vermont, for example, the local college is constructing a biomass plant with their surrounding eco-system in mind. At the same time that the plant is being constructed, they have decided to focus on “sustainable forestry methods,”<Ref> Ray, Sarah, "New biomass facility to reduce greenhouse gases by almost 12,500 tons a year". 2006, Middlebury College, October 15th, 2008. http://www.middlebury.edu/about/pubaff/news_releases/2006/news632951384540792349.htm</Ref>, to combat the inevitable carbon emissions that the plant will produce<Ref> Biomass Assessment Team, "Biomass Fuel Assessment for Middlebury College" (2004)</Ref>. If planned with the nearby ecosystems in mind, biomass plants can even have a positive impact on biodiversity through initiatives such as reforestation<Ref>Faaij, Andre. "Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies.(Author abstract)." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11.2 (March 2006): 335(33). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008.</Ref>.<br />
<br />
Comprehensive plans for biomass based on specific communities and regions can also have economic benefits for farmers. In the European Union, farmers seem to be quite willing to participate, whether on a communal or continental level. However, it is up to the specific regions and communities to ensure that the crops and plants harvested by farmers, which will likely be specifically for biomass, are guaranteed to be sold or subsidized. Farmers would also need detailed instruction on how to most efficiently farm for their region, since biomass is such new territory. Generally, farmers need to be given the opportunity to succeed in order for biomass to grow on any geographical scale<Ref> Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. Paris: OECD, 2004, p. 354.</Ref>. This kind of approach has happened particularly well in Austria, where a concept called “systematic management” has been made the implementation of biomass for heating homes a success. Systematic management is a complex system that takes into account social structures of an area in order to figure out the best way to introduce new technology. Austria has used this system to introduce more than 600 biomass plants in the last 20 years<Ref>Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. Paris: OECD, 2004, p. 307.</Ref>. Although comprehensive approaches such as this are difficult to achieve, Austria has shown that it is by no means impossible. <br />
<br />
Yet economic opportunity is not the only social necessity in the implementation of biofuel. There also needs to be a balance between food production and crops for biomass. An example of an unbalanced surge in biomass crop was the food crisis in 2007. Across the globe, farmers were taken advantage of the new and expanding biomass market, selling crops like corn and sugarcane usually put on the food market to the renewable energy sector. Because there was little regulation, and even in some cases subsidies for selling biomass-intended crops, food prices shot up<Ref>Wahlberg, Katarina. Are We Approaching a Global Food Crisis? Between Soaring Food Prices and Food Aid Shortage. 2008, http://www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/hunger/general/2008/0303foodcrisis.htm, October 29th, 2008.</Ref>. The price rise affected people and countries everywhere, but it most devastatingly affected the poor in developed countries (CITATION, ethanol source). Despite this crisis, biomass does not have to affect people in developing countries this negatively. In fact, since more conventional forms of cooking and heating used in those countries, such as firewood, are part of the spectrum of biomass, these countries might be well prepared to make the transition to larger scale biomass plants<Ref>Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. Paris: OECD, 2004, p. 93.</Ref>. <br />
NOTE: I haven't included political and economic yet because I wasn't sure if that could be interweaved into the essay or made their own topic, but I have all the info.<br />
<br />
'''NOTES: You have a lot of good information in this site as a whole, but I think you could benefit from reading what you've written out loud. I ended up getting lost a lot in some of your sentences. You know what you're talking about, so try to write it just like you would say it. By shortening up what you have and making it more concise, you would have room to write separate paragraphs on the economic/political implications of biomass use, just like what you were wondering about. The economic and political aspects are really important, so I wouldn't try to mix them into your other sections. '''<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references/></div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Biomass&diff=633
Biomass
2008-11-03T01:12:32Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
<br />
When talked about as a part of the solution to Global Warming, Biomass refers to the conversion of organic material into fuel, which is known as biofuel '''Confusing sentence. Perhaps reword to simply read: Biomass is organic material that has been converted into biofuel.'''. The material used in biomass ranges from plants and trees to organic waste from factories or municipal dumps. Biomass is known as a renewable fuel because it takes energy from easily renewable sources, such as plants and waste. '''Reword of second half of sentence into a new sentence: It still does emit carbon into the atmosphere, but less so than more conventional forms of fuel, such as ____ and _____.''' <Ref> Kimes, Laura. Biomass Conversion: Emerging Technologies, Feedstocks, and Products Washington D.C, U.S. environmental protection agency, 2007.</Ref>. Fossil fuels are '''of limited quantity and are ''' destructive to the balance of carbon in the atmosphere because of their carbon cycle – the time it takes for new coal or oil to develop and ‘ingest’ the carbon that it emits when used as a fuel. '''A''' carbon cycle of this kind of energy takes incredibly long to complete and therefore cannot be considered biomass. '''slightly confused by this last sentence.'''<br />
<br />
In 2005, research from the Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, recently noted as a leader in the field of biomass<Ref> BioEnergy Trade, Copernicus Institute: the Netherlands. Oct. 26th 2008, [http://bioenergytrade.org/t40members/0000009610121840e/copernicusinstitute/index.html]. </Ref> concluded that approximately 10% percent of total energy used comes from biomass, “making biomass by far the most important renewable energy source used to date” <Ref> Faaij, Andre. "Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies.(Author abstract)." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11.2 (March 2006): 335(33). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 </Ref>. Because of its technological readiness, can become a viable and effective way to combat global warming, especially in the next few years. It does, however, come with certain obstacles.<br />
<br />
== Technology ==<br />
<br />
<br />
What about the technical process of biomass, at least in theory, makes it such an attractive solution? '''Nix the first sentence.''' The process of Biomass essentially mimics the natural process of carbon cycles, and, although it emits greenhouse gases, can create carbon neutral fuels if paired with forestation and protection of biodiversity (see: find correct Paragraph). When plants are alive, they consume carbon through photosynthesis, only to die and eventually release the carbon back into the atmosphere. This delicate balance is a symbiotic relationship – plants and trees need carbon to survive and the earth’s eco-system needs to maintain a certain level of carbon in order to function. Yet when humans began processing huge amounts of fossil fuels, such as coal or oil, it upset the balance of carbon in the atmosphere. In other words, the more biomass we create, the more unbalanced and non-renewable energy sources can be replaced with renewable ones. Waste biomass, on the other hand, goes through the same process as plants, trees, and crops, though it relies on a different justification. By taking advantage of the inevitable carbon emissions that waste creates, biomass can create methane based biofuel, which doesn’t add any more carbon to the atmosphere than the waste would emit already<Ref>Shanmugam, P., and N.J. Horan. "Simple and rapid methods to evaluate methane potential and biomass yield for a range of mixed solid wastes.(Report)." Bioresource Technology 100.1 (Jan 2009): 471(4). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008</Ref>. This is because public and industrial waste can contain dangerous toxins and release similar amounts of methane when left on its own. <br />
<br />
More specifically, the biomass process consists of collection of the organic/ waste material, the conversion of that matter to liquid known as feedstock, and the subsequent conversion of feedstock into biofuel. There are many technologies to convert feedstock into biofuels; they are usually categorized into thermochemical, biochemical, and chemical processes. Thermochemical strategies use heat to break down the feedstock, biochemical strategies use enzymes and bacteria, while chemical strategies use chemical reactions. Specific processes are usually chosen according to the matter the feedstock is comprised of<Ref>Kimes, Laura. Biomass Conversion: Emerging Technologies, Feedstocks, and Products Washington D.C, U.S. environmental protection agency, 2007.</Ref>. See the chart above for a more detailed summary of biomass techniques. '''Good info, but reread this section for clarity. I started to skim in the middle of the first paragraph.'''<br />
<br />
== Environmental Implications ==<br />
<br />
<br />
It is difficult to assess the environmental impact of biomass on a regional or national level because of the unique complexity of each individual biomass facility. Every unit has different ecosystems, whether agricultural, natural, or industrial, to draw resources from. As a result, the overall carbon output is a large part due to how well the biofuel material used from ecosystems is replenished so that that it can neutralize the carbon emitted by biomasses<Ref>Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. Paris: OECD, 2004, p. 151.</Ref>. So what can be said with confidence about the environmental effectiveness of biofuel? There is more consensus about the need for biofuel in the transportation sector, mainly because other renewable energies lack the technological efficiency needed to power transport. Biofuel does emit considerably less carbon than fossil fuel<Ref> "Scientists set sights on biomass to reduce fossil fuel dependence". 2006, Imperial College London. October 29th, 2008. http://www.physorg.com/news10331.html</Ref>, and can be implemented on a wider scale fairly easily. <br />
<br />
Biomass can play an important role in two related fields: sequestration of CO2 and renewable hydrogen power. Sequestration (hyperlink) is the capture of carbon that occurs after fuel has been created so that it doesn’t enter the atmosphere. If done in conjuction with biomass, sequestration could potentially solve one of its major obstacles – biomass could then be both renewable and close to carbon neutral. In fact, it is thought that combining biomass and sequestration can produce overall negative carbon emissions<Ref>Faaij, Andre. "Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies.(Author abstract)." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11.2 (March 2006): 335(33). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008.</Ref>. If combined with hydrogen power, another important piece of the puzzle in solving global warming<Ref>Pacala, S. and Socolow, R., "Stabilization Wedges: Solving the Climate Problem for the Next 50 Years with Current Technologies". 2004 www.sciencemag.org, October 28th, 2008.</Ref> sequestration from biomass can become a truly powerful force in solving this crisis. Renewable hydrogen power can be extracted through the biomass process, and since carbon is simply extracted from hydrogen<Ref>Faaij, Andre. "Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies.(Author abstract)." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11.2 (March 2006): 335(33). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008.</Ref>, creating hydrogen power using sequestration strategies can truly find an environmentally effective way to utilize biomass<Ref> Turner, A. John,"Sustainable Hydrogen Production". 2004, www.sciencemag.com, October 28th, 2008.</Ref>.<br />
<br />
== Socio-cultural and Geographic Implications ==<br />
<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the effectiveness of biomass largely depends on its geographical placement. Since biomass on its own does produce carbon emissions, there needs to be a balance of agricultural protection (keeping crop-land, forests, other eco-systems diverse and lush) and protection against deforestation (since wood is such an excellent source of biomass). In Middlebury, Vermont, for example, the local college is constructing a biomass plant with their surrounding eco-system in mind. At the same time that the plant is being constructed, they have decided to focus on “sustainable forestry methods,”<Ref> Ray, Sarah, "New biomass facility to reduce greenhouse gases by almost 12,500 tons a year". 2006, Middlebury College, October 15th, 2008. http://www.middlebury.edu/about/pubaff/news_releases/2006/news632951384540792349.htm</Ref>, to combat the inevitable carbon emissions that the plant will produce<Ref> Biomass Assessment Team, "Biomass Fuel Assessment for Middlebury College" (2004)</Ref>. If planned with the nearby ecosystems in mind, biomass plants can even have a positive impact on biodiversity through initiatives such as reforestation<Ref>Faaij, Andre. "Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies.(Author abstract)." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11.2 (March 2006): 335(33). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008.</Ref>.<br />
<br />
Comprehensive plans for biomass based on specific communities and regions can also have economic benefits for farmers. In the European Union, farmers seem to be quite willing to participate, whether on a communal or continental level. However, it is up to the specific regions and communities to ensure that the crops and plants harvested by farmers, which will likely be specifically for biomass, are guaranteed to be sold or subsidized. Farmers would also need detailed instruction on how to most efficiently farm for their region, since biomass is such new territory. Generally, farmers need to be given the opportunity to succeed in order for biomass to grow on any geographical scale<Ref> Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. Paris: OECD, 2004, p. 354.</Ref>. This kind of approach has happened particularly well in Austria, where a concept called “systematic management” has been made the implementation of biomass for heating homes a success. Systematic management is a complex system that takes into account social structures of an area in order to figure out the best way to introduce new technology. Austria has used this system to introduce more than 600 biomass plants in the last 20 years<Ref>Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. Paris: OECD, 2004, p. 307.</Ref>. Although comprehensive approaches such as this are difficult to achieve, Austria has shown that it is by no means impossible. <br />
<br />
Yet economic opportunity is not the only social necessity in the implementation of biofuel. There also needs to be a balance between food production and crops for biomass. An example of an unbalanced surge in biomass crop was the food crisis in 2007. Across the globe, farmers were taken advantage of the new and expanding biomass market, selling crops like corn and sugarcane usually put on the food market to the renewable energy sector. Because there was little regulation, and even in some cases subsidies for selling biomass-intended crops, food prices shot up<Ref>Wahlberg, Katarina. Are We Approaching a Global Food Crisis? Between Soaring Food Prices and Food Aid Shortage. 2008, http://www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/hunger/general/2008/0303foodcrisis.htm, October 29th, 2008.</Ref>. The price rise affected people and countries everywhere, but it most devastatingly affected the poor in developed countries (CITATION, ethanol source). Despite this crisis, biomass does not have to affect people in developing countries this negatively. In fact, since more conventional forms of cooking and heating used in those countries, such as firewood, are part of the spectrum of biomass, these countries might be well prepared to make the transition to larger scale biomass plants<Ref>Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. Paris: OECD, 2004, p. 93.</Ref>. <br />
NOTE: I haven't included political and economic yet because I wasn't sure if that could be interweaved into the essay or made their own topic, but I have all the info.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references/></div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Biomass&diff=632
Biomass
2008-11-03T01:12:11Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
<br />
When talked about as a part of the solution to Global Warming, Biomass refers to the conversion of organic material into fuel, which is known as biofuel '''Confusing sentence. Perhaps reword to simply read: Biomass is organic material that has been converted into biofuel.'''. The material used in biomass ranges from plants and trees to organic waste from factories or municipal dumps. Biomass is known as a renewable fuel because it takes energy from easily renewable sources, such as plants and waste. '''Reword of second half of sentence into a new sentence: It still does emit carbon into the atmosphere, but less so than more conventional forms of fuel, such as ____ and _____.''' <Ref> Kimes, Laura. Biomass Conversion: Emerging Technologies, Feedstocks, and Products Washington D.C, U.S. environmental protection agency, 2007.</Ref>. Fossil fuels are '''of limited quantity and are ''' destructive to the balance of carbon in the atmosphere because of their carbon cycle – the time it takes for new coal or oil to develop and ‘ingest’ the carbon that it emits when used as a fuel. '''A''' carbon cycle of this kind of energy takes incredibly long to complete and therefore cannot be considered biomass. '''slightly confused by this last sentence.'''<br />
<br />
In 2005, research from the Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, recently noted as a leader in the field of biomass<Ref> BioEnergy Trade, Copernicus Institute: the Netherlands. Oct. 26th 2008, [http://bioenergytrade.org/t40members/0000009610121840e/copernicusinstitute/index.html]. </Ref> concluded that approximately 10% percent of total energy used comes from biomass, “making biomass by far the most important renewable energy source used to date” <Ref> Faaij, Andre. "Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies.(Author abstract)." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11.2 (March 2006): 335(33). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 </Ref>. Because of its technological readiness, can become a viable and effective way to combat global warming, especially in the next few years. It does, however, come with certain obstacles.<br />
<br />
== Technology ==<br />
<br />
<br />
What about the technical process of biomass, at least in theory, makes it such an attractive solution? '''Nix the first sentence.''' The process of Biomass essentially mimics the natural process of carbon cycles, and, although it emits greenhouse gases, can create carbon neutral fuels if paired with forestation and protection of biodiversity (see: find correct Paragraph). When plants are alive, they consume carbon through photosynthesis, only to die and eventually release the carbon back into the atmosphere. This delicate balance is a symbiotic relationship – plants and trees need carbon to survive and the earth’s eco-system needs to maintain a certain level of carbon in order to function. Yet when humans began processing huge amounts of fossil fuels, such as coal or oil, it upset the balance of carbon in the atmosphere. In other words, the more biomass we create, the more unbalanced and non-renewable energy sources can be replaced with renewable ones. Waste biomass, on the other hand, goes through the same process as plants, trees, and crops, though it relies on a different justification. By taking advantage of the inevitable carbon emissions that waste creates, biomass can create methane based biofuel, which doesn’t add any more carbon to the atmosphere than the waste would emit already<Ref>Shanmugam, P., and N.J. Horan. "Simple and rapid methods to evaluate methane potential and biomass yield for a range of mixed solid wastes.(Report)." Bioresource Technology 100.1 (Jan 2009): 471(4). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008</Ref>. This is because public and industrial waste can contain dangerous toxins and release similar amounts of methane when left on its own. <br />
<br />
More specifically, the biomass process consists of collection of the organic/ waste material, the conversion of that matter to liquid known as feedstock, and the subsequent conversion of feedstock into biofuel. There are many technologies to convert feedstock into biofuels; they are usually categorized into thermochemical, biochemical, and chemical processes. Thermochemical strategies use heat to break down the feedstock, biochemical strategies use enzymes and bacteria, while chemical strategies use chemical reactions. Specific processes are usually chosen according to the matter the feedstock is comprised of<Ref>Kimes, Laura. Biomass Conversion: Emerging Technologies, Feedstocks, and Products Washington D.C, U.S. environmental protection agency, 2007.</Ref>. See the chart above for a more detailed summary of biomass techniques. '''Good info, but reread this section for clarity. I started to skim in the middle of the first paragraph.'''<br />
<br />
== Environmental Implications ==<br />
<br />
<br />
It is difficult to assess the environmental impact of biomass on a regional or national level because of the unique complexity of each individual biomass facility. Every unit has different ecosystems, whether agricultural, natural, or industrial, to draw resources from. As a result, the overall carbon output is a large part due to how well the biofuel material used from ecosystems is replenished so that that it can neutralize the carbon emitted by biomasses<Ref>Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. Paris: OECD, 2004, p. 151.</Ref>. So what can be said with confidence about the environmental effectiveness of biofuel? There is more consensus about the need for biofuel in the transportation sector, mainly because other renewable energies lack the technological efficiency needed to power transport. Biofuel does emit considerably less carbon than fossil fuel<Ref> "Scientists set sights on biomass to reduce fossil fuel dependence". 2006, Imperial College London. October 29th, 2008. http://www.physorg.com/news10331.html</Ref>, and can be implemented on a wider scale fairly easily. <br />
<br />
Biomass can play an important role in two related fields: sequestration of CO2 and renewable hydrogen power. Sequestration (hyperlink) is the capture of carbon that occurs after fuel has been created so that it doesn’t enter the atmosphere. If done in conjuction with biomass, sequestration could potentially solve one of its major obstacles – biomass could then be both renewable and close to carbon neutral. In fact, it is thought that combining biomass and sequestration can produce overall negative carbon emissions<Ref>Faaij, Andre. "Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies.(Author abstract)." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11.2 (March 2006): 335(33). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008.</Ref>. If combined with hydrogen power, another important piece of the puzzle in solving global warming<Ref>Pacala, S. and Socolow, R., "Stabilization Wedges: Solving the Climate Problem for the Next 50 Years with Current Technologies". 2004 www.sciencemag.org, October 28th, 2008.</Ref> sequestration from biomass can become a truly powerful force in solving this crisis. Renewable hydrogen power can be extracted through the biomass process, and since carbon is simply extracted from hydrogen<Ref>Faaij, Andre. "Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies.(Author abstract)." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11.2 (March 2006): 335(33). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008.</Ref>, creating hydrogen power using sequestration strategies can truly find an environmentally effective way to utilize biomass<Ref> Turner, A. John,"Sustainable Hydrogen Production". 2004, www.sciencemag.com, October 28th, 2008.</Ref>.<br />
<br />
== Socio-cultural and Geographic Implications ==<br />
<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the effectiveness of biomass largely depends on its geographical placement. Since biomass on its own does produce carbon emissions, there needs to be a balance of agricultural protection (keeping crop-land, forests, other eco-systems diverse and lush) and protection against deforestation (since wood is such an excellent source of biomass). In Middlebury, Vermont, for example, the local college is constructing a biomass plant with their surrounding eco-system in mind. At the same time that the plant is being constructed, they have decided to focus on “sustainable forestry methods,”<Ref> Ray, Sarah, "New biomass facility to reduce greenhouse gases by almost 12,500 tons a year". 2006, Middlebury College, October 15th, 2008. http://www.middlebury.edu/about/pubaff/news_releases/2006/news632951384540792349.htm</Ref>, to combat the inevitable carbon emissions that the plant will produce<Ref> Biomass Assessment Team, "Biomass Fuel Assessment for Middlebury College" (2004)</Ref>. If planned with the nearby ecosystems in mind, biomass plants can even have a positive impact on biodiversity through initiatives such as reforestation<Ref>Faaij, Andre. "Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies.(Author abstract)." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11.2 (March 2006): 335(33). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008.</Ref>.<br />
<br />
Comprehensive plans for biomass based on specific communities and regions can also have economic benefits for farmers. In the European Union, farmers seem to be quite willing to participate, whether on a communal or continental level. However, it is up to the specific regions and communities to ensure that the crops and plants harvested by farmers, which will likely be specifically for biomass, are guaranteed to be sold or subsidized. Farmers would also need detailed instruction on how to most efficiently farm for their region, since biomass is such new territory. Generally, farmers need to be given the opportunity to succeed in order for biomass to grow on any geographical scale<Ref> Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. Paris: OECD, 2004, p. 354.</Ref>. This kind of approach has happened particularly well in Austria, where a concept called “systematic management” has been made the implementation of biomass for heating homes a success. Systematic management is a complex system that takes into account social structures of an area in order to figure out the best way to introduce new technology. Austria has used this system to introduce more than 600 biomass plants in the last 20 years<Ref>Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. Paris: OECD, 2004, p. 307.</Ref>. Although comprehensive approaches such as this are difficult to achieve, Austria has shown that it is by no means impossible. <br />
<br />
Yet economic opportunity is not the only social necessity in the implementation of biofuel. There also needs to be a balance between food production and crops for biomass. An example of an unbalanced surge in biomass crop was the food crisis in 2007. Across the globe, farmers were taken advantage of the new and expanding biomass market, selling crops like corn and sugarcane usually put on the food market to the renewable energy sector. Because there was little regulation, and even in some cases subsidies for selling biomass-intended crops, food prices shot up<Ref>Wahlberg, Katarina. Are We Approaching a Global Food Crisis? Between Soaring Food Prices and Food Aid Shortage. 2008, http://www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/hunger/general/2008/0303foodcrisis.htm, October 29th, 2008.</Ref>. The price rise affected people and countries everywhere, but it most devastatingly affected the poor in developed countries (CITATION, ethanol source). Despite this crisis, biomass does not have to affect people in developing countries this negatively. In fact, since more conventional forms of cooking and heating used in those countries, such as firewood, are part of the spectrum of biomass, these countries might be well prepared to make the transition to larger scale biomass plants<Ref>Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. Paris: OECD, 2004, p. 93.</Ref>. <br />
NOTE: I haven't included political and economic yet because I wasn't sure if that could be interweaved into the essay or made their own topic, but I have all the info.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
'''NOTES: You have a lot of good information in here, but I think you could benefit from reading what you've written out loud. I ended up getting lost a lot in some of your sentences. You know what you're talking about, so try to write it just like you would say it. You could do with some shortening of what you have, and this would allow you to have a separate paragraph for economic/political implications, just like what you were wondering about. Economic and political stuff is really important, so I wouldn't try to mix it in to your other sections. '''</div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Biomass&diff=631
Biomass
2008-11-03T01:09:45Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: /* Environmental Implications */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
<br />
When talked about as a part of the solution to Global Warming, Biomass refers to the conversion of organic material into fuel, which is known as biofuel '''Confusing sentence. Perhaps reword to simply read: Biomass is organic material that has been converted into biofuel.'''. The material used in biomass ranges from plants and trees to organic waste from factories or municipal dumps. Biomass is known as a renewable fuel because it takes energy from easily renewable sources, such as plants and waste. '''Reword of second half of sentence into a new sentence: It still does emit carbon into the atmosphere, but less so than more conventional forms of fuel, such as ____ and _____.''' <Ref> Kimes, Laura. Biomass Conversion: Emerging Technologies, Feedstocks, and Products Washington D.C, U.S. environmental protection agency, 2007.</Ref>. Fossil fuels are '''of limited quantity and are ''' destructive to the balance of carbon in the atmosphere because of their carbon cycle – the time it takes for new coal or oil to develop and ‘ingest’ the carbon that it emits when used as a fuel. '''A''' carbon cycle of this kind of energy takes incredibly long to complete and therefore cannot be considered biomass. '''slightly confused by this last sentence.'''<br />
<br />
In 2005, research from the Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, recently noted as a leader in the field of biomass<Ref> BioEnergy Trade, Copernicus Institute: the Netherlands. Oct. 26th 2008, [http://bioenergytrade.org/t40members/0000009610121840e/copernicusinstitute/index.html]. </Ref> concluded that approximately 10% percent of total energy used comes from biomass, “making biomass by far the most important renewable energy source used to date” <Ref> Faaij, Andre. "Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies.(Author abstract)." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11.2 (March 2006): 335(33). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 </Ref>. Because of its technological readiness, can become a viable and effective way to combat global warming, especially in the next few years. It does, however, come with certain obstacles.<br />
<br />
== Technology ==<br />
<br />
<br />
What about the technical process of biomass, at least in theory, makes it such an attractive solution? '''Nix the first sentence.''' The process of Biomass essentially mimics the natural process of carbon cycles, and, although it emits greenhouse gases, can create carbon neutral fuels if paired with forestation and protection of biodiversity (see: find correct Paragraph). When plants are alive, they consume carbon through photosynthesis, only to die and eventually release the carbon back into the atmosphere. This delicate balance is a symbiotic relationship – plants and trees need carbon to survive and the earth’s eco-system needs to maintain a certain level of carbon in order to function. Yet when humans began processing huge amounts of fossil fuels, such as coal or oil, it upset the balance of carbon in the atmosphere. In other words, the more biomass we create, the more unbalanced and non-renewable energy sources can be replaced with renewable ones. Waste biomass, on the other hand, goes through the same process as plants, trees, and crops, though it relies on a different justification. By taking advantage of the inevitable carbon emissions that waste creates, biomass can create methane based biofuel, which doesn’t add any more carbon to the atmosphere than the waste would emit already<Ref>Shanmugam, P., and N.J. Horan. "Simple and rapid methods to evaluate methane potential and biomass yield for a range of mixed solid wastes.(Report)." Bioresource Technology 100.1 (Jan 2009): 471(4). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008</Ref>. This is because public and industrial waste can contain dangerous toxins and release similar amounts of methane when left on its own. <br />
<br />
More specifically, the biomass process consists of collection of the organic/ waste material, the conversion of that matter to liquid known as feedstock, and the subsequent conversion of feedstock into biofuel. There are many technologies to convert feedstock into biofuels; they are usually categorized into thermochemical, biochemical, and chemical processes. Thermochemical strategies use heat to break down the feedstock, biochemical strategies use enzymes and bacteria, while chemical strategies use chemical reactions. Specific processes are usually chosen according to the matter the feedstock is comprised of<Ref>Kimes, Laura. Biomass Conversion: Emerging Technologies, Feedstocks, and Products Washington D.C, U.S. environmental protection agency, 2007.</Ref>. See the chart above for a more detailed summary of biomass techniques. '''Good info, but reread this section for clarity. I started to skim in the middle of the first paragraph.'''<br />
<br />
== Environmental Implications ==<br />
<br />
<br />
It is difficult to assess the environmental impact of biomass on a regional or national level because of the unique complexity of each individual biomass facility. Every unit has different ecosystems, whether agricultural, natural, or industrial, to draw resources from. As a result, the overall carbon output is a large part due to how well the biofuel material used from ecosystems is replenished so that that it can neutralize the carbon emitted by biomasses<Ref>Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. Paris: OECD, 2004, p. 151.</Ref>. So what can be said with confidence about the environmental effectiveness of biofuel? There is more consensus about the need for biofuel in the transportation sector, mainly because other renewable energies lack the technological efficiency needed to power transport. Biofuel does emit considerably less carbon than fossil fuel<Ref> "Scientists set sights on biomass to reduce fossil fuel dependence". 2006, Imperial College London. October 29th, 2008. http://www.physorg.com/news10331.html</Ref>, and can be implemented on a wider scale fairly easily. <br />
<br />
Biomass can play an important role in two related fields: sequestration of CO2 and renewable hydrogen power. Sequestration (hyperlink) is the capture of carbon that occurs after fuel has been created so that it doesn’t enter the atmosphere. If done in conjuction with biomass, sequestration could potentially solve one of its major obstacles – biomass could then be both renewable and close to carbon neutral. In fact, it is thought that combining biomass and sequestration can produce overall negative carbon emissions<Ref>Faaij, Andre. "Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies.(Author abstract)." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11.2 (March 2006): 335(33). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008.</Ref>. If combined with hydrogen power, another important piece of the puzzle in solving global warming<Ref>Pacala, S. and Socolow, R., "Stabilization Wedges: Solving the Climate Problem for the Next 50 Years with Current Technologies". 2004 www.sciencemag.org, October 28th, 2008.</Ref> sequestration from biomass can become a truly powerful force in solving this crisis. Renewable hydrogen power can be extracted through the biomass process, and since carbon is simply extracted from hydrogen<Ref>Faaij, Andre. "Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies.(Author abstract)." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11.2 (March 2006): 335(33). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008.</Ref>, creating hydrogen power using sequestration strategies can truly find an environmentally effective way to utilize biomass<Ref> Turner, A. John,"Sustainable Hydrogen Production". 2004, www.sciencemag.com, October 28th, 2008.</Ref>.<br />
<br />
== Socio-cultural and Geographic Implications ==<br />
<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the effectiveness of biomass largely depends on its geographical placement. Since biomass on its own does produce carbon emissions, there needs to be a balance of agricultural protection (keeping crop-land, forests, other eco-systems diverse and lush) and protection against deforestation (since wood is such an excellent source of biomass). In Middlebury, Vermont, for example, the local college is constructing a biomass plant with their surrounding eco-system in mind. At the same time that the plant is being constructed, they have decided to focus on “sustainable forestry methods,”<Ref> Ray, Sarah, "New biomass facility to reduce greenhouse gases by almost 12,500 tons a year". 2006, Middlebury College, October 15th, 2008. http://www.middlebury.edu/about/pubaff/news_releases/2006/news632951384540792349.htm</Ref>, to combat the inevitable carbon emissions that the plant will produce<Ref> Biomass Assessment Team, "Biomass Fuel Assessment for Middlebury College" (2004)</Ref>. If planned with the nearby ecosystems in mind, biomass plants can even have a positive impact on biodiversity through initiatives such as reforestation<Ref>Faaij, Andre. "Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies.(Author abstract)." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11.2 (March 2006): 335(33). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008.</Ref>.<br />
<br />
Comprehensive plans for biomass based on specific communities and regions can also have economic benefits for farmers. In the European Union, farmers seem to be quite willing to participate, whether on a communal or continental level. However, it is up to the specific regions and communities to ensure that the crops and plants harvested by farmers, which will likely be specifically for biomass, are guaranteed to be sold or subsidized. Farmers would also need detailed instruction on how to most efficiently farm for their region, since biomass is such new territory. Generally, farmers need to be given the opportunity to succeed in order for biomass to grow on any geographical scale<Ref> Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. Paris: OECD, 2004, p. 354.</Ref>. This kind of approach has happened particularly well in Austria, where a concept called “systematic management” has been made the implementation of biomass for heating homes a success. Systematic management is a complex system that takes into account social structures of an area in order to figure out the best way to introduce new technology. Austria has used this system to introduce more than 600 biomass plants in the last 20 years<Ref>Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. Paris: OECD, 2004, p. 307.</Ref>. Although comprehensive approaches such as this are difficult to achieve, Austria has shown that it is by no means impossible. <br />
<br />
Yet economic opportunity is not the only social necessity in the implementation of biofuel. There also needs to be a balance between food production and crops for biomass. An example of an unbalanced surge in biomass crop was the food crisis in 2007. Across the globe, farmers were taken advantage of the new and expanding biomass market, selling crops like corn and sugarcane usually put on the food market to the renewable energy sector. Because there was little regulation, and even in some cases subsidies for selling biomass-intended crops, food prices shot up<Ref>Wahlberg, Katarina. Are We Approaching a Global Food Crisis? Between Soaring Food Prices and Food Aid Shortage. 2008, http://www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/hunger/general/2008/0303foodcrisis.htm, October 29th, 2008.</Ref>. The price rise affected people and countries everywhere, but it most devastatingly affected the poor in developed countries (CITATION, ethanol source). Despite this crisis, biomass does not have to affect people in developing countries this negatively. In fact, since more conventional forms of cooking and heating used in those countries, such as firewood, are part of the spectrum of biomass, these countries might be well prepared to make the transition to larger scale biomass plants<Ref>Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. Paris: OECD, 2004, p. 93.</Ref>. <br />
NOTE: I haven't included political and economic yet because I wasn't sure if that could be interweaved into the essay or made their own topic, but I have all the info.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references/></div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Biomass&diff=629
Biomass
2008-11-03T01:08:18Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: /* Technology */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
<br />
When talked about as a part of the solution to Global Warming, Biomass refers to the conversion of organic material into fuel, which is known as biofuel '''Confusing sentence. Perhaps reword to simply read: Biomass is organic material that has been converted into biofuel.'''. The material used in biomass ranges from plants and trees to organic waste from factories or municipal dumps. Biomass is known as a renewable fuel because it takes energy from easily renewable sources, such as plants and waste. '''Reword of second half of sentence into a new sentence: It still does emit carbon into the atmosphere, but less so than more conventional forms of fuel, such as ____ and _____.''' <Ref> Kimes, Laura. Biomass Conversion: Emerging Technologies, Feedstocks, and Products Washington D.C, U.S. environmental protection agency, 2007.</Ref>. Fossil fuels are '''of limited quantity and are ''' destructive to the balance of carbon in the atmosphere because of their carbon cycle – the time it takes for new coal or oil to develop and ‘ingest’ the carbon that it emits when used as a fuel. '''A''' carbon cycle of this kind of energy takes incredibly long to complete and therefore cannot be considered biomass. '''slightly confused by this last sentence.'''<br />
<br />
In 2005, research from the Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, recently noted as a leader in the field of biomass<Ref> BioEnergy Trade, Copernicus Institute: the Netherlands. Oct. 26th 2008, [http://bioenergytrade.org/t40members/0000009610121840e/copernicusinstitute/index.html]. </Ref> concluded that approximately 10% percent of total energy used comes from biomass, “making biomass by far the most important renewable energy source used to date” <Ref> Faaij, Andre. "Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies.(Author abstract)." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11.2 (March 2006): 335(33). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 </Ref>. Because of its technological readiness, can become a viable and effective way to combat global warming, especially in the next few years. It does, however, come with certain obstacles.<br />
<br />
== Technology ==<br />
<br />
<br />
What about the technical process of biomass, at least in theory, makes it such an attractive solution? '''Nix the first sentence.''' The process of Biomass essentially mimics the natural process of carbon cycles, and, although it emits greenhouse gases, can create carbon neutral fuels if paired with forestation and protection of biodiversity (see: find correct Paragraph). When plants are alive, they consume carbon through photosynthesis, only to die and eventually release the carbon back into the atmosphere. This delicate balance is a symbiotic relationship – plants and trees need carbon to survive and the earth’s eco-system needs to maintain a certain level of carbon in order to function. Yet when humans began processing huge amounts of fossil fuels, such as coal or oil, it upset the balance of carbon in the atmosphere. In other words, the more biomass we create, the more unbalanced and non-renewable energy sources can be replaced with renewable ones. Waste biomass, on the other hand, goes through the same process as plants, trees, and crops, though it relies on a different justification. By taking advantage of the inevitable carbon emissions that waste creates, biomass can create methane based biofuel, which doesn’t add any more carbon to the atmosphere than the waste would emit already<Ref>Shanmugam, P., and N.J. Horan. "Simple and rapid methods to evaluate methane potential and biomass yield for a range of mixed solid wastes.(Report)." Bioresource Technology 100.1 (Jan 2009): 471(4). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008</Ref>. This is because public and industrial waste can contain dangerous toxins and release similar amounts of methane when left on its own. <br />
<br />
More specifically, the biomass process consists of collection of the organic/ waste material, the conversion of that matter to liquid known as feedstock, and the subsequent conversion of feedstock into biofuel. There are many technologies to convert feedstock into biofuels; they are usually categorized into thermochemical, biochemical, and chemical processes. Thermochemical strategies use heat to break down the feedstock, biochemical strategies use enzymes and bacteria, while chemical strategies use chemical reactions. Specific processes are usually chosen according to the matter the feedstock is comprised of<Ref>Kimes, Laura. Biomass Conversion: Emerging Technologies, Feedstocks, and Products Washington D.C, U.S. environmental protection agency, 2007.</Ref>. See the chart above for a more detailed summary of biomass techniques. '''Good info, but reread this section for clarity. I started to skim in the middle of the first paragraph.'''<br />
<br />
== Environmental Implications ==<br />
<br />
<br />
It is difficult to assess the environmental impact of biomass on a regional or national level because of the unique complexity of each individual biomass facility. Every unit has different ecosystems, whether agricultural, natural, or industrial, to draw resources from. As a result, the overall carbon output is a large part due to how well the biofuel material used from ecosystems is replenished so that that it can neutralize the carbon emitted by biomasses<Ref>Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. Paris: OECD, 2004, p. 151.</Ref>. So what can be said with confidence about the environmental effectiveness of biofuel? There is more consensus about the need for biofuel in the transportation sector, mainly because other renewable energies lack the technological efficiency needed to power transport. Biofuel does emit considerably less carbon than fossil fuel<Ref> "Scientists set sights on biomass to reduce fossil fuel dependence". 2006, Imperial College London. October 29th, 2008. http://www.physorg.com/news10331.html</Ref>, and can be implemented on a wider scale fairly easily. <br />
<br />
Biomass can also play an important role in two related fields, sequestration of CO2 and renewable hydrogen power. Sequestration (hyperlink) is the capture of carbon that arises after fuel has been created so that it doesn’t enter the atmosphere. If done in conjuction with biomass, sequestration could potentially solve one of its major obstacles – biomass could then be both renewable and close to carbon neutral. In fact, it is thought that combining biomass and sequestration can produce overall negative carbon emissions<Ref>Faaij, Andre. "Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies.(Author abstract)." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11.2 (March 2006): 335(33). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008.</Ref>. If combined with hydrogen power, another important piece of the puzzle in solving global warming<Ref>Pacala, S. and Socolow, R., "Stabilization Wedges: Solving the Climate Problem for the Next 50 Years with Current Technologies". 2004 www.sciencemag.org, October 28th, 2008.</Ref> sequestration from biomass can become a truly powerful force in solving this crisis. Renewable hydrogen power can be extracted through the biomass process, and since carbon is simply extracted from hydrogen<Ref>Faaij, Andre. "Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies.(Author abstract)." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11.2 (March 2006): 335(33). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008.</Ref>, creating hydrogen power using sequestration strategies can truly find an environmentally effective way to utilize biomass<Ref> Turner, A. John,"Sustainable Hydrogen Production". 2004, www.sciencemag.com, October 28th, 2008.</Ref>.<br />
<br />
== Socio-cultural and Geographic Implications ==<br />
<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the effectiveness of biomass largely depends on its geographical placement. Since biomass on its own does produce carbon emissions, there needs to be a balance of agricultural protection (keeping crop-land, forests, other eco-systems diverse and lush) and protection against deforestation (since wood is such an excellent source of biomass). In Middlebury, Vermont, for example, the local college is constructing a biomass plant with their surrounding eco-system in mind. At the same time that the plant is being constructed, they have decided to focus on “sustainable forestry methods,”<Ref> Ray, Sarah, "New biomass facility to reduce greenhouse gases by almost 12,500 tons a year". 2006, Middlebury College, October 15th, 2008. http://www.middlebury.edu/about/pubaff/news_releases/2006/news632951384540792349.htm</Ref>, to combat the inevitable carbon emissions that the plant will produce<Ref> Biomass Assessment Team, "Biomass Fuel Assessment for Middlebury College" (2004)</Ref>. If planned with the nearby ecosystems in mind, biomass plants can even have a positive impact on biodiversity through initiatives such as reforestation<Ref>Faaij, Andre. "Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies.(Author abstract)." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11.2 (March 2006): 335(33). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008.</Ref>.<br />
<br />
Comprehensive plans for biomass based on specific communities and regions can also have economic benefits for farmers. In the European Union, farmers seem to be quite willing to participate, whether on a communal or continental level. However, it is up to the specific regions and communities to ensure that the crops and plants harvested by farmers, which will likely be specifically for biomass, are guaranteed to be sold or subsidized. Farmers would also need detailed instruction on how to most efficiently farm for their region, since biomass is such new territory. Generally, farmers need to be given the opportunity to succeed in order for biomass to grow on any geographical scale<Ref> Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. Paris: OECD, 2004, p. 354.</Ref>. This kind of approach has happened particularly well in Austria, where a concept called “systematic management” has been made the implementation of biomass for heating homes a success. Systematic management is a complex system that takes into account social structures of an area in order to figure out the best way to introduce new technology. Austria has used this system to introduce more than 600 biomass plants in the last 20 years<Ref>Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. Paris: OECD, 2004, p. 307.</Ref>. Although comprehensive approaches such as this are difficult to achieve, Austria has shown that it is by no means impossible. <br />
<br />
Yet economic opportunity is not the only social necessity in the implementation of biofuel. There also needs to be a balance between food production and crops for biomass. An example of an unbalanced surge in biomass crop was the food crisis in 2007. Across the globe, farmers were taken advantage of the new and expanding biomass market, selling crops like corn and sugarcane usually put on the food market to the renewable energy sector. Because there was little regulation, and even in some cases subsidies for selling biomass-intended crops, food prices shot up<Ref>Wahlberg, Katarina. Are We Approaching a Global Food Crisis? Between Soaring Food Prices and Food Aid Shortage. 2008, http://www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/hunger/general/2008/0303foodcrisis.htm, October 29th, 2008.</Ref>. The price rise affected people and countries everywhere, but it most devastatingly affected the poor in developed countries (CITATION, ethanol source). Despite this crisis, biomass does not have to affect people in developing countries this negatively. In fact, since more conventional forms of cooking and heating used in those countries, such as firewood, are part of the spectrum of biomass, these countries might be well prepared to make the transition to larger scale biomass plants<Ref>Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. Paris: OECD, 2004, p. 93.</Ref>. <br />
NOTE: I haven't included political and economic yet because I wasn't sure if that could be interweaved into the essay or made their own topic, but I have all the info.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references/></div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Biomass&diff=615
Biomass
2008-11-02T23:24:02Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: /* Overview */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
<br />
When talked about as a part of the solution to Global Warming, Biomass refers to the conversion of organic material into fuel, which is known as biofuel '''Confusing sentence. Perhaps reword to simply read: Biomass is organic material that has been converted into biofuel.'''. The material used in biomass ranges from plants and trees to organic waste from factories or municipal dumps. Biomass is known as a renewable fuel because it takes energy from easily renewable sources, such as plants and waste. '''Reword of second half of sentence into a new sentence: It still does emit carbon into the atmosphere, but less so than more conventional forms of fuel, such as ____ and _____.''' <Ref> Kimes, Laura. Biomass Conversion: Emerging Technologies, Feedstocks, and Products Washington D.C, U.S. environmental protection agency, 2007.</Ref>. Fossil fuels are '''of limited quantity and are ''' destructive to the balance of carbon in the atmosphere because of their carbon cycle – the time it takes for new coal or oil to develop and ‘ingest’ the carbon that it emits when used as a fuel. '''A''' carbon cycle of this kind of energy takes incredibly long to complete and therefore cannot be considered biomass. '''slightly confused by this last sentence.'''<br />
<br />
In 2005, research from the Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, recently noted as a leader in the field of biomass<Ref> BioEnergy Trade, Copernicus Institute: the Netherlands. Oct. 26th 2008, [http://bioenergytrade.org/t40members/0000009610121840e/copernicusinstitute/index.html]. </Ref> concluded that approximately 10% percent of total energy used comes from biomass, “making biomass by far the most important renewable energy source used to date” <Ref> Faaij, Andre. "Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies.(Author abstract)." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11.2 (March 2006): 335(33). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008 </Ref>. Because of its technological readiness, can become a viable and effective way to combat global warming, especially in the next few years. It does, however, come with certain obstacles.<br />
<br />
== Technology ==<br />
<br />
<br />
What about the technical process of biomass, at least in theory, makes it such an attractive solution? The process of Biomass essentially mimics the natural process of carbon cycles, and, although it emits greenhouse gases, can create carbon neutral fuels if paired with forestation and protection of biodiversity (see: find correct Paragraph). When plants are alive, they consume carbon through photosynthesis, only to die and eventually release the carbon back into the atmosphere. This delicate balance is a symbiotic relationship – plants and trees need carbon to survive and the earth’s eco-system needs to maintain a certain level of carbon in order to function. Yet when humans began processing huge amounts of fossil fuels, such as coal or oil, it upset the balance of carbon in the atmosphere. In other words, the more biomass we create, the more unbalanced and non-renewable energy sources can be replaced with renewable ones. Waste biomass, on the other hand, goes through the same process as plants, trees, and crops, though it relies on a different justification. By taking advantage of the inevitable carbon emissions that waste creates, biomass can create methane based biofuel, which doesn’t add any more carbon to the atmosphere than the waste would emit already<Ref>Shanmugam, P., and N.J. Horan. "Simple and rapid methods to evaluate methane potential and biomass yield for a range of mixed solid wastes.(Report)." Bioresource Technology 100.1 (Jan 2009): 471(4). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008</Ref>. This is because public and industrial waste can contain dangerous toxins and release similar amounts of methane when left on its own. <br />
<br />
More specifically, the biomass process consists of collection of the organic/ waste material, the conversion of that matter to liquid known as feedstock, and the subsequent conversion of feedstock into biofuel. There are many technologies to convert feedstock into biofuels; they are usually categorized into thermochemical, biochemical, and chemical processes. Thermochemical strategies use heat to break down the feedstock, biochemical strategies use enzymes and bacteria, while chemical strategies use chemical reactions. Specific processes are usually chosen according to the matter the feedstock is comprised of<Ref>Kimes, Laura. Biomass Conversion: Emerging Technologies, Feedstocks, and Products Washington D.C, U.S. environmental protection agency, 2007.</Ref>. See the chart above for a more detailed summary of biomass techniques.<br />
<br />
== Environmental Implications ==<br />
<br />
<br />
It is difficult to assess the environmental impact of biomass on a regional or national level because of the unique complexity of each individual biomass facility. Every unit has different ecosystems, whether agricultural, natural, or industrial, to draw resources from. As a result, the overall carbon output is a large part due to how well the biofuel material used from ecosystems is replenished so that that it can neutralize the carbon emitted by biomasses<Ref>Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. Paris: OECD, 2004, p. 151.</Ref>. So what can be said with confidence about the environmental effectiveness of biofuel? There is more consensus about the need for biofuel in the transportation sector, mainly because other renewable energies lack the technological efficiency needed to power transport. Biofuel does emit considerably less carbon than fossil fuel<Ref> "Scientists set sights on biomass to reduce fossil fuel dependence". 2006, Imperial College London. October 29th, 2008. http://www.physorg.com/news10331.html</Ref>, and can be implemented on a wider scale fairly easily. <br />
<br />
Biomass can also play an important role in two related fields, sequestration of CO2 and renewable hydrogen power. Sequestration (hyperlink) is the capture of carbon that arises after fuel has been created so that it doesn’t enter the atmosphere. If done in conjuction with biomass, sequestration could potentially solve one of its major obstacles – biomass could then be both renewable and close to carbon neutral. In fact, it is thought that combining biomass and sequestration can produce overall negative carbon emissions<Ref>Faaij, Andre. "Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies.(Author abstract)." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11.2 (March 2006): 335(33). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008.</Ref>. If combined with hydrogen power, another important piece of the puzzle in solving global warming<Ref>Pacala, S. and Socolow, R., "Stabilization Wedges: Solving the Climate Problem for the Next 50 Years with Current Technologies". 2004 www.sciencemag.org, October 28th, 2008.</Ref> sequestration from biomass can become a truly powerful force in solving this crisis. Renewable hydrogen power can be extracted through the biomass process, and since carbon is simply extracted from hydrogen<Ref>Faaij, Andre. "Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies.(Author abstract)." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11.2 (March 2006): 335(33). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008.</Ref>, creating hydrogen power using sequestration strategies can truly find an environmentally effective way to utilize biomass<Ref> Turner, A. John,"Sustainable Hydrogen Production". 2004, www.sciencemag.com, October 28th, 2008.</Ref>.<br />
<br />
== Socio-cultural and Geographic Implications ==<br />
<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the effectiveness of biomass largely depends on its geographical placement. Since biomass on its own does produce carbon emissions, there needs to be a balance of agricultural protection (keeping crop-land, forests, other eco-systems diverse and lush) and protection against deforestation (since wood is such an excellent source of biomass). In Middlebury, Vermont, for example, the local college is constructing a biomass plant with their surrounding eco-system in mind. At the same time that the plant is being constructed, they have decided to focus on “sustainable forestry methods,”<Ref> Ray, Sarah, "New biomass facility to reduce greenhouse gases by almost 12,500 tons a year". 2006, Middlebury College, October 15th, 2008. http://www.middlebury.edu/about/pubaff/news_releases/2006/news632951384540792349.htm</Ref>, to combat the inevitable carbon emissions that the plant will produce<Ref> Biomass Assessment Team, "Biomass Fuel Assessment for Middlebury College" (2004)</Ref>. If planned with the nearby ecosystems in mind, biomass plants can even have a positive impact on biodiversity through initiatives such as reforestation<Ref>Faaij, Andre. "Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies.(Author abstract)." Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11.2 (March 2006): 335(33). Academic OneFile. Gale. Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT. 29 Oct. 2008.</Ref>.<br />
<br />
Comprehensive plans for biomass based on specific communities and regions can also have economic benefits for farmers. In the European Union, farmers seem to be quite willing to participate, whether on a communal or continental level. However, it is up to the specific regions and communities to ensure that the crops and plants harvested by farmers, which will likely be specifically for biomass, are guaranteed to be sold or subsidized. Farmers would also need detailed instruction on how to most efficiently farm for their region, since biomass is such new territory. Generally, farmers need to be given the opportunity to succeed in order for biomass to grow on any geographical scale<Ref> Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. Paris: OECD, 2004, p. 354.</Ref>. This kind of approach has happened particularly well in Austria, where a concept called “systematic management” has been made the implementation of biomass for heating homes a success. Systematic management is a complex system that takes into account social structures of an area in order to figure out the best way to introduce new technology. Austria has used this system to introduce more than 600 biomass plants in the last 20 years<Ref>Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. Paris: OECD, 2004, p. 307.</Ref>. Although comprehensive approaches such as this are difficult to achieve, Austria has shown that it is by no means impossible. <br />
<br />
Yet economic opportunity is not the only social necessity in the implementation of biofuel. There also needs to be a balance between food production and crops for biomass. An example of an unbalanced surge in biomass crop was the food crisis in 2007. Across the globe, farmers were taken advantage of the new and expanding biomass market, selling crops like corn and sugarcane usually put on the food market to the renewable energy sector. Because there was little regulation, and even in some cases subsidies for selling biomass-intended crops, food prices shot up<Ref>Wahlberg, Katarina. Are We Approaching a Global Food Crisis? Between Soaring Food Prices and Food Aid Shortage. 2008, http://www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/hunger/general/2008/0303foodcrisis.htm, October 29th, 2008.</Ref>. The price rise affected people and countries everywhere, but it most devastatingly affected the poor in developed countries (CITATION, ethanol source). Despite this crisis, biomass does not have to affect people in developing countries this negatively. In fact, since more conventional forms of cooking and heating used in those countries, such as firewood, are part of the spectrum of biomass, these countries might be well prepared to make the transition to larger scale biomass plants<Ref>Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Biomass and Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies. Paris: OECD, 2004, p. 93.</Ref>. <br />
NOTE: I haven't included political and economic yet because I wasn't sure if that could be interweaved into the essay or made their own topic, but I have all the info.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references/></div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Biofuels&diff=614
Biofuels
2008-11-02T23:18:50Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: /* Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>Biofuels have been championed as environmentally-friendly sources of power that help to tackle climate change. However, the report by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) said biofuels may "offer a cure that is worse than the disease they seek to heal". <ref>Biofuels Offer Cure Worse Than the Disease - OECD,by Sybille de La Hamaide ,Planet Ark's daily Reuters World Environment News© 2008 [http://www.google.com link: http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/44269/story.htm]</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
==Introduction== <br />
Concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the Earth’s atmosphere have become a global concern because of their potential to '''affect''' long-term climate changes. About 82% of'''the United States'''' GHG emissions are from'''the combustion of''' fossil fuels used to generate electricity and operate vehicles. '''O'''ther emissions are from methane, (Applied Energy, Volume 71, Issue 1, January 2002,Pages 15-30). On another hand, US agriculture's contribution to air pollutant as a consumer of energy is small, as agricultural crop, livestock and poultry production accounts for only about 1% of direct energy use. However, the production agriculture accounts for about 7% of annul net GHG emissions (US Department of Agriculture, 2004a). Increase in agricultural productivity and conservation can reduce energy intensity of agricultural production and pollution. '''These last two sentences were very confusing. Are they really necessary? It seems like the main point you want to make starts in the following sentence.'''Recent studies show that replacing fossil energy with renewable energy, like biofuels, is an important way of reaching the climate policy goals. (Soil and Tillage Research, Volume 61, Issues 1-2, August 2001, Pages77-92). '''Maybe start right here! -->'''There is a significant opportunity to reduce pollutants and GHG emission'''s''' by using biofuels. Like biodiesel, biofuels have many desirable environmental properties. They are non-toxic '''and''' biodegradable, and biodiesel exhaust emits less toxic air emissions, carbon monoxide and particular matter than petroleum diesel (Graboski and McCormick, 1998). Biofuels also have advantages that the plants grown each year to produce the fuel sequester carbon, which offsets the carbon released during fuel combustion (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1998). '''Reread and reword this last sentence.'''<br />
<br />
==Types of biofuels==<br />
<br />
[[Image:Pathways_of_different_biofuels.jpg]]<br />
<br />
'''First generation biofuels'''<br />
<br />
Bioethanol, the most commonly biofuel feedstock, is a fuel generally produced by the action of microorganisms and enzymes through the fermentation of any biological feedstock, which contains appreciable amounts of sugar or materials that can be converted into sugar such as starch or cellulose.<br />
<br />
----<br />
Second generation biofuels<br />
<br />
==Current biofuel promotion policies==<br />
<br />
<br />
==Environmental benefits and problems==<br />
<br />
<br />
==Socio-economic benefits and problems==<br />
In the United States, biofuel production has not proven to be broadly economically feasible<br />
<br />
==Case Study—Biofuels in China==<br />
Biofuels have become a broad debate in many countries' energy policies since it covers many aspects, such as energy security, food security, climate change mitigation, and international biofuel development. With 20 percent of world's population and 10 percent of its arable land, the center debate of biofuel production ins China is the conflict between food security and energy crops. <br />
<br />
In January 2007, China’s State Forestry Administration (SFA) and the oil company PetroChina signed an agreement of developing diversity of potential energy crops, an oil-bearing plant, Jatropha. Jatropha curcas has considered as a high potential biodiesel feedstock in China since it grows on marginal land in Southwest China, and thus avoids the completion with food system. Southwest China, including Guizhou Province, Sichuan Province, and Yunnan Province, is the official target area for Jatropha production in China(see table below). Especially for Yunnan Province, it has significantly more land available for Jatropha production than neither Guizhou nor Sichuan Province. Therefore, Yunnan may be the p province capable of achieving the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC)'s goal: to expand Jatropha plantations to 10 million mu in each Southwest province in China. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''Estimate Current and Planned Jatropha Area in Southwest China by Province'''<br />
[[Image:Estimated_Current_and_Planned_Jatropha_Area.jpg]]<br />
<br />
==Future studies==<br />
The amount of subsidy, the extent of biofuel penetration into the energy market and the rate of technical progress are the key considerations in the future biofuel prospects. In this study, the only form of subsidy considered is in the form of a carbon price which may not be subsidy at all but rather a reflection of the future externality cost of GHG emission into the atmosphere. Namely, if a prospect offset 95% of the carbon created from energy equivalent amount of fossil fuel then at a US$40/MT carbon price this amounts to a US$38/MT implicit subsidy and relative to a wood price in the vicinity of US$25 to US$30/MT, this substantially offsets the purchase price to a biofeedstock user(Agiculure as a Producer and Consumer of Energy, J.Outlaw,2005).<br />
Energy market penetration of biofuels is similarly important. Biofuels can penetrate when new plants are built or older plants are retrofit. New power or petroleum refining plants are needed as existing plants are retired or as demand for energy use grows(Potential for Biofuel-based Greenhouse Gas Emission Mitigation: Rationale and Potential,2004). Therefore, progress in biofeedstock yields whether at the farm or in the form of conversion ratios to energy products as energy products will be important to maintain a competitive role.<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/></div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Agricultural_Management&diff=613
Agricultural Management
2008-11-02T23:05:45Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: /* The Economic, Socio-Cultural and Political Opportunities and Risks of Agricultural Management */</p>
<hr />
<div>== The Problem ==<br />
<br />
The agricultural '''sector of the global economy''' employs 40.2% of the world’s labour force. This '''percentage''' is even higher in most of the developing world. 37% of the land mass of the world is being used for agricultural purposes. Today more than 13% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions, including approximately 47% of today’s anthropogenic methane emissions and approximately 84% of today’s anthropogenic nitrous oxide emissions, are due to agricultural practices. Agricultural practices have '''also''' led to widespread deforestation, which has affected natural carbon sequestration. (Carbon sequestration refers to the process whereby carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere.) Agricultural practices that contribute to greenhouse gas emissions include croplands soil emission, rice farming techniques, enteric fermentation, manure emission and carbon emissions from agricultural consumption of fossil fuels.<br />
<br />
[[Image:nial1.jpg|500px]]<br />
<br />
It may seem '''self-'''evident that agricultural practices '''negatively''' impact the delicate balance of our environment. '''Suprisingly,''' awareness regarding greenhouse gas emissions from the agricultural sector'''arose''' only recently. Therefore, measures to mitigate or reduce the effects of this sector on global warming have been only recently conceived and seriously considered.<br />
<br />
== Moving towards Solutions ==<br />
<br />
''In spite of this being a relatively new field, the potential for reducing agriculture stands at 5500-6000 megatons of CO2-equivalent of greenhouse gas reduction per year by the year 2030. To put this figure into perspective, it compares to…'' '''Are you going to fix the previous sentence? It remains incomplete.'''Improving agricultural management with respect to mitigation of greenhouse gases, involves the implementation of practices that aim to make the land more able to sequester carbon dioxide and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Improved agricultural management includes practices such as better cropland and grazing-land management, restoration of degraded lands and cultivated organic soils, livestock management, manure management and agroforestry.<br />
<br />
Much of the contemporary scientific community'''believes''' that mitigation in the agricultural sector is a very challenging process. Additionally, some scientists believe that in comparison to other more achievable mitigation projects such as harvesting wind energy or solar energy, improved agricultural management is much less worth the effort and investment. On the other hand, others believe that improved agricultural management can increase the land’s ability to sequester carbon and therefore offset other emissions from the sector significantly. '''This paragraph is a bit confusing. The phrases "additionally" and "on the other hand" make your point a bit hard to follow. Both sides agree with mitigation, correct?'''<br />
<br />
Therefore it is worth trying to better understand the different methods of responsible agricultural management and their positive impact on reducing greenhouse and improving sequestration. Secondly, one must be aware of the different social levels at which change must be implemented. Thirdly, one must be also aware of the various economic, socio-cultural and political opportunities and risks that arise from agricultural mitigation practices. And lastly, a study of agricultural management and its mitigation potential is incomplete without keeping in mind the differences in how the solutions should be approached in the developed and the developing world.<br />
<br />
== Solutions: ''the different methods of agricultural management'' ==<br />
<br />
''NOTE:'' The potential success of mitigation efforts depends highly upon local factors and thus may succeed better in some regions and not as well in others due to differences in the climate, soil type and the current farming practices. Secondly, the majority of the total mitigation potential from the agricultural sector is from increasing sequestration. This is achieved by the enhancement of carbon sinks. A smaller percentage of the mitigation potential comes from the actual reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.<br />
<br />
Below are options with the aim of mitigating the impact of greenhouse gas emissions from the agricultural sector:<br />
<br />
''Improved Cropland Management''<br />
<br />
The main emission from croplands, and the most significant contributor of emissions in the agricultural sector is Nitrous oxide. Nitrous oxide (N20) is naturally emitted through the processes of nitrification and denitrification of the soil. Nitrogen-based fertilizers also can contribute to an increase in emissions. Since all the content of the fertilizer may not be consumed by the crop, it is thus emitted into the atmosphere. The manner in which the soil is tilled, irrigated and drained also has an impact on the emissions of N20 as well as soil carbon (explain) and fossil fuel carbon dioxide emission.<br />
Options for mitigation include the use of more efficient nitrogen-based fertilizers or switching over to other non-emitting fertilizers. It also includes improved tillage and residue management (''for example the no-tillage cultivation practices in Europe* find example)'' and improved water management. These measures are scientifically proven to help the soil retain its nitrogen, carbon and fossil fuel carbon dioxide content without emitting it into the atmosphere. Such practices also improve the quality of the soil in such a manner that it may begin to sequester carbon dioxide directly from the atmosphere, under the right conditions.*<br />
<br />
''Livestock Management''<br />
<br />
The livestock kept by the agricultural sector play a large role in the emissions of methane. Methane is naturally produced by microbes in the enteric system of ruminant animals like cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats and camels during digestion by the process of fermentation. The methane may be exhaled or eructated by livestock.<br />
Mitigation in this sector can be performed by the adoption of various approaches. Firstly, the quality of the feed for the livestock may be improved with the aim of reducing its ability to ferment and produce methane. Secondly, employing the use of biological technology will reduce the livestock’s enteric system’s ability to emit methane. Thirdly, by increasing the livestock’s per unit output of agricultural products (milk, meat and work), the requirement for livestock will numerically grow slower than previously expected. Hence, the total methane emissions would be reduced at a national level.<br />
<br />
''Livestock Manure Management''<br />
<br />
Manure from livestock produces both methane and nitrous oxide. Methane is produced due to anaerobic decomposition of the manure and nitrous oxide from the nitrification and denitrification of the nitrogen-content of the manure and urine of livestock. The extent of the production of these two compounds depends on factors such as the manner in which the manure is stored or treated, composition of the diet of the livestock and the health of the livestock.****<br />
The most effective manner to manage agricultural manure is the use of an anaerobic digester. Some of these digesters are already in use to improve the sanitary conditions at farms as well as control the odor. Digesters are useful in capturing the methane emitted by manure.<br />
<br />
''Rice-Farming Management''<br />
<br />
Rice is mostly grown in flooded paddy fields throughout most of the world and especially in Asia ''(90% of rice growth)*''. Once the oxygen content of the soil and the floodwater depletes due to aerobic decomposition, anaerobic decomposition begins and methane is produced.<br />
Methane production in rice farms can be reduced through better water management so as to maintain oxygen supply in the water. Also, special fertilizers may be used which prevent the anaerobic process from occurring. Lastly, farmers may give up the flooded paddy method of growing rice and switch to upland farming of rice which does not use as much water and thus anaerobic respiration is negligible.<br />
<br />
''Other solutions''<br />
'''Are you going to add other solutions? I like the ones you have now; good job with your organization and with your succinctness.'''<br />
<br />
== The Scales of Change: ''the different social levels at which change must be implemented'' ==<br />
<br />
''The Individual''<br />
<br />
The most important contributor to the agriculture sector is the unit of the individual and his family. The farmer forms the backbone of the agricultural sector. The farmer may provide agricultural products for his own family, a subsistence local economy or for distribution in commercial markets. The farmer may own his own small plot of land or may co-own large plots of cash crops. He may also just be a landless laborer in a farm. Thus there is a broad spectrum regarding the varying levels of participation of the individual in the agricultural sector around the world. It is important to note that no matter what the influence of the State may be, it is most often the individual’s choice to implement reforms in agricultural practices so as to minimize emissions and maximize sequestration potential. Thus, at the end of the day it is the individual who will carry forward the change towards emissions-responsible agricultural management. This change may involve a change in the traditional manner in which these individuals run their farms. Farmers may also need to make investments into the new technology. Hence, they require incentive to carry out such changes. Knowledge regarding the urgency of the climate crisis and the impact of irresponsible agricultural practices on the environment can be one incentive to switch over to more responsible practices on an individual level. '''You might want to reread this paragraph to be a bit more clear and to-the-point. It's a bit broad, and you also use terms like "thus" and "hence" a lot, which makes it hard to follow. Your paragraph below is great. Try to model this one a bit more after that, perhaps.'''<br />
<br />
''The Local Community''<br />
<br />
Such incentive can also come from the local community in which an individual lives. One farmer can see his neighbours changing practices in order to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and therefore may be pressurized into making such changes himself. The climate change crisis can have an immense impact on the agricultural sector as well. For example, a 2°C increase in temperature due to global warming can cause the wheat yields in northern India to reduce by 28% to 68% (if the carbon fertilizer effect is not considered in the predictions.) Hence, community-based awareness regarding climate change issues can motivate the local community to act.<br />
<br />
''The Regional and National Government''<br />
<br />
Government policy can aid the adoption of more responsible agricultural practices. Governments can help to ensure the availability of new technology which can aid the adoption of improved agricultural practices. These could include the installing better drainage systems for rice cultivators, no-tillage technology, non-emitting fertilizers, biological technology and high-quality feed for livestock management and anaerobic digesters. Subsidies on this new technology could help the common man purchase the necessary technology for the improvement of his agricultural practices. The Government can also educate the public through educational institutions and the media regarding the benefits of implementing responsible agricultural practices. At an international level, Governments can cooperate and eliminate or reduce trade tariffs for goods which would aid responsible agricultural management. Countries may also share knowledge and resources in order to optimize responsible agricultural practices. They may also get together and set a standard for agricultural practices worldwide and thereby pressure other government to meet those standards.<br />
<br />
== Emissions, Regions and Growing Challenges ==<br />
<br />
Increases in this sector’s greenhouse gas emissions are expected along the current upward trend as there is a continuously increasing demand for diverse agricultural products. Additionally, 74% of total agricultural emissions come from 5 groups of mainly non-Annex I countries (as stipulated by the Kyoto Protocol). These countries are predominantly developing countries. The emissions from the agricultural sector are not analogous everywhere- which means that there are big differences in the amount of emissions and the sources of those emissions from place to place. This data suggests that as the developing world’s demand for more food and diverse agricultural products increases, so will the total emissions of greenhouse gases. This can change with definitive reforms and policies to improve contemporary agricultural practices. Otherwise, greenhouse gas emissions from this sector have been projected to increase by up to 60% for non-CO2 emissions by the year 2030.<br />
'''Edit your first sentence for clarity (ex: The greenhouse gas emissions from the agricultural sector are expect to continue rising as long as the demand for diverse agricultural products continues to increase.)''' Also, what are Annex I countries? And like I mentioned when we chatted, you don't need to explain what the word analogous means, so I'd cut the second half of that sentence.<br />
<br />
== The Economic, Socio-Cultural and Political Opportunities and Risks of Agricultural Management ==<br />
<br />
What are the resources an economy needs to sustain agricultural changes? What can be the political motives and shape of agricultural mitigation policy. What are the economic and political risks of such policy on the country and its citizens.<br />
<br />
The socio-cultural impact of changes in traditional methods of farming. The effect of modernized technology on the farmer. The impact on the agricultural market product. The moral issues: livestock management, abandonment of traditional methods.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Sounds like you know where you're going with this section. Good job!'''<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==</div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Agricultural_Management&diff=612
Agricultural Management
2008-11-02T23:05:10Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: /* Emissions, Regions and Growing Challenges */</p>
<hr />
<div>== The Problem ==<br />
<br />
The agricultural '''sector of the global economy''' employs 40.2% of the world’s labour force. This '''percentage''' is even higher in most of the developing world. 37% of the land mass of the world is being used for agricultural purposes. Today more than 13% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions, including approximately 47% of today’s anthropogenic methane emissions and approximately 84% of today’s anthropogenic nitrous oxide emissions, are due to agricultural practices. Agricultural practices have '''also''' led to widespread deforestation, which has affected natural carbon sequestration. (Carbon sequestration refers to the process whereby carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere.) Agricultural practices that contribute to greenhouse gas emissions include croplands soil emission, rice farming techniques, enteric fermentation, manure emission and carbon emissions from agricultural consumption of fossil fuels.<br />
<br />
[[Image:nial1.jpg|500px]]<br />
<br />
It may seem '''self-'''evident that agricultural practices '''negatively''' impact the delicate balance of our environment. '''Suprisingly,''' awareness regarding greenhouse gas emissions from the agricultural sector'''arose''' only recently. Therefore, measures to mitigate or reduce the effects of this sector on global warming have been only recently conceived and seriously considered.<br />
<br />
== Moving towards Solutions ==<br />
<br />
''In spite of this being a relatively new field, the potential for reducing agriculture stands at 5500-6000 megatons of CO2-equivalent of greenhouse gas reduction per year by the year 2030. To put this figure into perspective, it compares to…'' '''Are you going to fix the previous sentence? It remains incomplete.'''Improving agricultural management with respect to mitigation of greenhouse gases, involves the implementation of practices that aim to make the land more able to sequester carbon dioxide and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Improved agricultural management includes practices such as better cropland and grazing-land management, restoration of degraded lands and cultivated organic soils, livestock management, manure management and agroforestry.<br />
<br />
Much of the contemporary scientific community'''believes''' that mitigation in the agricultural sector is a very challenging process. Additionally, some scientists believe that in comparison to other more achievable mitigation projects such as harvesting wind energy or solar energy, improved agricultural management is much less worth the effort and investment. On the other hand, others believe that improved agricultural management can increase the land’s ability to sequester carbon and therefore offset other emissions from the sector significantly. '''This paragraph is a bit confusing. The phrases "additionally" and "on the other hand" make your point a bit hard to follow. Both sides agree with mitigation, correct?'''<br />
<br />
Therefore it is worth trying to better understand the different methods of responsible agricultural management and their positive impact on reducing greenhouse and improving sequestration. Secondly, one must be aware of the different social levels at which change must be implemented. Thirdly, one must be also aware of the various economic, socio-cultural and political opportunities and risks that arise from agricultural mitigation practices. And lastly, a study of agricultural management and its mitigation potential is incomplete without keeping in mind the differences in how the solutions should be approached in the developed and the developing world.<br />
<br />
== Solutions: ''the different methods of agricultural management'' ==<br />
<br />
''NOTE:'' The potential success of mitigation efforts depends highly upon local factors and thus may succeed better in some regions and not as well in others due to differences in the climate, soil type and the current farming practices. Secondly, the majority of the total mitigation potential from the agricultural sector is from increasing sequestration. This is achieved by the enhancement of carbon sinks. A smaller percentage of the mitigation potential comes from the actual reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.<br />
<br />
Below are options with the aim of mitigating the impact of greenhouse gas emissions from the agricultural sector:<br />
<br />
''Improved Cropland Management''<br />
<br />
The main emission from croplands, and the most significant contributor of emissions in the agricultural sector is Nitrous oxide. Nitrous oxide (N20) is naturally emitted through the processes of nitrification and denitrification of the soil. Nitrogen-based fertilizers also can contribute to an increase in emissions. Since all the content of the fertilizer may not be consumed by the crop, it is thus emitted into the atmosphere. The manner in which the soil is tilled, irrigated and drained also has an impact on the emissions of N20 as well as soil carbon (explain) and fossil fuel carbon dioxide emission.<br />
Options for mitigation include the use of more efficient nitrogen-based fertilizers or switching over to other non-emitting fertilizers. It also includes improved tillage and residue management (''for example the no-tillage cultivation practices in Europe* find example)'' and improved water management. These measures are scientifically proven to help the soil retain its nitrogen, carbon and fossil fuel carbon dioxide content without emitting it into the atmosphere. Such practices also improve the quality of the soil in such a manner that it may begin to sequester carbon dioxide directly from the atmosphere, under the right conditions.*<br />
<br />
''Livestock Management''<br />
<br />
The livestock kept by the agricultural sector play a large role in the emissions of methane. Methane is naturally produced by microbes in the enteric system of ruminant animals like cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats and camels during digestion by the process of fermentation. The methane may be exhaled or eructated by livestock.<br />
Mitigation in this sector can be performed by the adoption of various approaches. Firstly, the quality of the feed for the livestock may be improved with the aim of reducing its ability to ferment and produce methane. Secondly, employing the use of biological technology will reduce the livestock’s enteric system’s ability to emit methane. Thirdly, by increasing the livestock’s per unit output of agricultural products (milk, meat and work), the requirement for livestock will numerically grow slower than previously expected. Hence, the total methane emissions would be reduced at a national level.<br />
<br />
''Livestock Manure Management''<br />
<br />
Manure from livestock produces both methane and nitrous oxide. Methane is produced due to anaerobic decomposition of the manure and nitrous oxide from the nitrification and denitrification of the nitrogen-content of the manure and urine of livestock. The extent of the production of these two compounds depends on factors such as the manner in which the manure is stored or treated, composition of the diet of the livestock and the health of the livestock.****<br />
The most effective manner to manage agricultural manure is the use of an anaerobic digester. Some of these digesters are already in use to improve the sanitary conditions at farms as well as control the odor. Digesters are useful in capturing the methane emitted by manure.<br />
<br />
''Rice-Farming Management''<br />
<br />
Rice is mostly grown in flooded paddy fields throughout most of the world and especially in Asia ''(90% of rice growth)*''. Once the oxygen content of the soil and the floodwater depletes due to aerobic decomposition, anaerobic decomposition begins and methane is produced.<br />
Methane production in rice farms can be reduced through better water management so as to maintain oxygen supply in the water. Also, special fertilizers may be used which prevent the anaerobic process from occurring. Lastly, farmers may give up the flooded paddy method of growing rice and switch to upland farming of rice which does not use as much water and thus anaerobic respiration is negligible.<br />
<br />
''Other solutions''<br />
'''Are you going to add other solutions? I like the ones you have now; good job with your organization and with your succinctness.'''<br />
<br />
== The Scales of Change: ''the different social levels at which change must be implemented'' ==<br />
<br />
''The Individual''<br />
<br />
The most important contributor to the agriculture sector is the unit of the individual and his family. The farmer forms the backbone of the agricultural sector. The farmer may provide agricultural products for his own family, a subsistence local economy or for distribution in commercial markets. The farmer may own his own small plot of land or may co-own large plots of cash crops. He may also just be a landless laborer in a farm. Thus there is a broad spectrum regarding the varying levels of participation of the individual in the agricultural sector around the world. It is important to note that no matter what the influence of the State may be, it is most often the individual’s choice to implement reforms in agricultural practices so as to minimize emissions and maximize sequestration potential. Thus, at the end of the day it is the individual who will carry forward the change towards emissions-responsible agricultural management. This change may involve a change in the traditional manner in which these individuals run their farms. Farmers may also need to make investments into the new technology. Hence, they require incentive to carry out such changes. Knowledge regarding the urgency of the climate crisis and the impact of irresponsible agricultural practices on the environment can be one incentive to switch over to more responsible practices on an individual level. '''You might want to reread this paragraph to be a bit more clear and to-the-point. It's a bit broad, and you also use terms like "thus" and "hence" a lot, which makes it hard to follow. Your paragraph below is great. Try to model this one a bit more after that, perhaps.'''<br />
<br />
''The Local Community''<br />
<br />
Such incentive can also come from the local community in which an individual lives. One farmer can see his neighbours changing practices in order to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and therefore may be pressurized into making such changes himself. The climate change crisis can have an immense impact on the agricultural sector as well. For example, a 2°C increase in temperature due to global warming can cause the wheat yields in northern India to reduce by 28% to 68% (if the carbon fertilizer effect is not considered in the predictions.) Hence, community-based awareness regarding climate change issues can motivate the local community to act.<br />
<br />
''The Regional and National Government''<br />
<br />
Government policy can aid the adoption of more responsible agricultural practices. Governments can help to ensure the availability of new technology which can aid the adoption of improved agricultural practices. These could include the installing better drainage systems for rice cultivators, no-tillage technology, non-emitting fertilizers, biological technology and high-quality feed for livestock management and anaerobic digesters. Subsidies on this new technology could help the common man purchase the necessary technology for the improvement of his agricultural practices. The Government can also educate the public through educational institutions and the media regarding the benefits of implementing responsible agricultural practices. At an international level, Governments can cooperate and eliminate or reduce trade tariffs for goods which would aid responsible agricultural management. Countries may also share knowledge and resources in order to optimize responsible agricultural practices. They may also get together and set a standard for agricultural practices worldwide and thereby pressure other government to meet those standards.<br />
<br />
== Emissions, Regions and Growing Challenges ==<br />
<br />
Increases in this sector’s greenhouse gas emissions are expected along the current upward trend as there is a continuously increasing demand for diverse agricultural products. Additionally, 74% of total agricultural emissions come from 5 groups of mainly non-Annex I countries (as stipulated by the Kyoto Protocol). These countries are predominantly developing countries. The emissions from the agricultural sector are not analogous everywhere- which means that there are big differences in the amount of emissions and the sources of those emissions from place to place. This data suggests that as the developing world’s demand for more food and diverse agricultural products increases, so will the total emissions of greenhouse gases. This can change with definitive reforms and policies to improve contemporary agricultural practices. Otherwise, greenhouse gas emissions from this sector have been projected to increase by up to 60% for non-CO2 emissions by the year 2030.<br />
'''Edit your first sentence for clarity (ex: The greenhouse gas emissions from the agricultural sector are expect to continue rising as long as the demand for diverse agricultural products continues to increase.)''' Also, what are Annex I countries? And like I mentioned when we chatted, you don't need to explain what the word analogous means, so I'd cut the second half of that sentence.<br />
<br />
== The Economic, Socio-Cultural and Political Opportunities and Risks of Agricultural Management ==<br />
<br />
What are the resources an economy needs to sustain agricultural changes? What can be the political motives and shape of agricultural mitigation policy. What are the economic and political risks of such policy on the country and its citizens.<br />
<br />
The socio-cultural impact of changes in traditional methods of farming. The effect of modernized technology on the farmer. The impact on the agricultural market product. The moral issues: livestock management, abandonment of traditional methods.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==</div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Agricultural_Management&diff=611
Agricultural Management
2008-11-02T23:02:17Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: /* The Scales of Change: the different social levels at which change must be implemented */</p>
<hr />
<div>== The Problem ==<br />
<br />
The agricultural '''sector of the global economy''' employs 40.2% of the world’s labour force. This '''percentage''' is even higher in most of the developing world. 37% of the land mass of the world is being used for agricultural purposes. Today more than 13% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions, including approximately 47% of today’s anthropogenic methane emissions and approximately 84% of today’s anthropogenic nitrous oxide emissions, are due to agricultural practices. Agricultural practices have '''also''' led to widespread deforestation, which has affected natural carbon sequestration. (Carbon sequestration refers to the process whereby carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere.) Agricultural practices that contribute to greenhouse gas emissions include croplands soil emission, rice farming techniques, enteric fermentation, manure emission and carbon emissions from agricultural consumption of fossil fuels.<br />
<br />
[[Image:nial1.jpg|500px]]<br />
<br />
It may seem '''self-'''evident that agricultural practices '''negatively''' impact the delicate balance of our environment. '''Suprisingly,''' awareness regarding greenhouse gas emissions from the agricultural sector'''arose''' only recently. Therefore, measures to mitigate or reduce the effects of this sector on global warming have been only recently conceived and seriously considered.<br />
<br />
== Moving towards Solutions ==<br />
<br />
''In spite of this being a relatively new field, the potential for reducing agriculture stands at 5500-6000 megatons of CO2-equivalent of greenhouse gas reduction per year by the year 2030. To put this figure into perspective, it compares to…'' '''Are you going to fix the previous sentence? It remains incomplete.'''Improving agricultural management with respect to mitigation of greenhouse gases, involves the implementation of practices that aim to make the land more able to sequester carbon dioxide and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Improved agricultural management includes practices such as better cropland and grazing-land management, restoration of degraded lands and cultivated organic soils, livestock management, manure management and agroforestry.<br />
<br />
Much of the contemporary scientific community'''believes''' that mitigation in the agricultural sector is a very challenging process. Additionally, some scientists believe that in comparison to other more achievable mitigation projects such as harvesting wind energy or solar energy, improved agricultural management is much less worth the effort and investment. On the other hand, others believe that improved agricultural management can increase the land’s ability to sequester carbon and therefore offset other emissions from the sector significantly. '''This paragraph is a bit confusing. The phrases "additionally" and "on the other hand" make your point a bit hard to follow. Both sides agree with mitigation, correct?'''<br />
<br />
Therefore it is worth trying to better understand the different methods of responsible agricultural management and their positive impact on reducing greenhouse and improving sequestration. Secondly, one must be aware of the different social levels at which change must be implemented. Thirdly, one must be also aware of the various economic, socio-cultural and political opportunities and risks that arise from agricultural mitigation practices. And lastly, a study of agricultural management and its mitigation potential is incomplete without keeping in mind the differences in how the solutions should be approached in the developed and the developing world.<br />
<br />
== Solutions: ''the different methods of agricultural management'' ==<br />
<br />
''NOTE:'' The potential success of mitigation efforts depends highly upon local factors and thus may succeed better in some regions and not as well in others due to differences in the climate, soil type and the current farming practices. Secondly, the majority of the total mitigation potential from the agricultural sector is from increasing sequestration. This is achieved by the enhancement of carbon sinks. A smaller percentage of the mitigation potential comes from the actual reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.<br />
<br />
Below are options with the aim of mitigating the impact of greenhouse gas emissions from the agricultural sector:<br />
<br />
''Improved Cropland Management''<br />
<br />
The main emission from croplands, and the most significant contributor of emissions in the agricultural sector is Nitrous oxide. Nitrous oxide (N20) is naturally emitted through the processes of nitrification and denitrification of the soil. Nitrogen-based fertilizers also can contribute to an increase in emissions. Since all the content of the fertilizer may not be consumed by the crop, it is thus emitted into the atmosphere. The manner in which the soil is tilled, irrigated and drained also has an impact on the emissions of N20 as well as soil carbon (explain) and fossil fuel carbon dioxide emission.<br />
Options for mitigation include the use of more efficient nitrogen-based fertilizers or switching over to other non-emitting fertilizers. It also includes improved tillage and residue management (''for example the no-tillage cultivation practices in Europe* find example)'' and improved water management. These measures are scientifically proven to help the soil retain its nitrogen, carbon and fossil fuel carbon dioxide content without emitting it into the atmosphere. Such practices also improve the quality of the soil in such a manner that it may begin to sequester carbon dioxide directly from the atmosphere, under the right conditions.*<br />
<br />
''Livestock Management''<br />
<br />
The livestock kept by the agricultural sector play a large role in the emissions of methane. Methane is naturally produced by microbes in the enteric system of ruminant animals like cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats and camels during digestion by the process of fermentation. The methane may be exhaled or eructated by livestock.<br />
Mitigation in this sector can be performed by the adoption of various approaches. Firstly, the quality of the feed for the livestock may be improved with the aim of reducing its ability to ferment and produce methane. Secondly, employing the use of biological technology will reduce the livestock’s enteric system’s ability to emit methane. Thirdly, by increasing the livestock’s per unit output of agricultural products (milk, meat and work), the requirement for livestock will numerically grow slower than previously expected. Hence, the total methane emissions would be reduced at a national level.<br />
<br />
''Livestock Manure Management''<br />
<br />
Manure from livestock produces both methane and nitrous oxide. Methane is produced due to anaerobic decomposition of the manure and nitrous oxide from the nitrification and denitrification of the nitrogen-content of the manure and urine of livestock. The extent of the production of these two compounds depends on factors such as the manner in which the manure is stored or treated, composition of the diet of the livestock and the health of the livestock.****<br />
The most effective manner to manage agricultural manure is the use of an anaerobic digester. Some of these digesters are already in use to improve the sanitary conditions at farms as well as control the odor. Digesters are useful in capturing the methane emitted by manure.<br />
<br />
''Rice-Farming Management''<br />
<br />
Rice is mostly grown in flooded paddy fields throughout most of the world and especially in Asia ''(90% of rice growth)*''. Once the oxygen content of the soil and the floodwater depletes due to aerobic decomposition, anaerobic decomposition begins and methane is produced.<br />
Methane production in rice farms can be reduced through better water management so as to maintain oxygen supply in the water. Also, special fertilizers may be used which prevent the anaerobic process from occurring. Lastly, farmers may give up the flooded paddy method of growing rice and switch to upland farming of rice which does not use as much water and thus anaerobic respiration is negligible.<br />
<br />
''Other solutions''<br />
'''Are you going to add other solutions? I like the ones you have now; good job with your organization and with your succinctness.'''<br />
<br />
== The Scales of Change: ''the different social levels at which change must be implemented'' ==<br />
<br />
''The Individual''<br />
<br />
The most important contributor to the agriculture sector is the unit of the individual and his family. The farmer forms the backbone of the agricultural sector. The farmer may provide agricultural products for his own family, a subsistence local economy or for distribution in commercial markets. The farmer may own his own small plot of land or may co-own large plots of cash crops. He may also just be a landless laborer in a farm. Thus there is a broad spectrum regarding the varying levels of participation of the individual in the agricultural sector around the world. It is important to note that no matter what the influence of the State may be, it is most often the individual’s choice to implement reforms in agricultural practices so as to minimize emissions and maximize sequestration potential. Thus, at the end of the day it is the individual who will carry forward the change towards emissions-responsible agricultural management. This change may involve a change in the traditional manner in which these individuals run their farms. Farmers may also need to make investments into the new technology. Hence, they require incentive to carry out such changes. Knowledge regarding the urgency of the climate crisis and the impact of irresponsible agricultural practices on the environment can be one incentive to switch over to more responsible practices on an individual level. '''You might want to reread this paragraph to be a bit more clear and to-the-point. It's a bit broad, and you also use terms like "thus" and "hence" a lot, which makes it hard to follow. Your paragraph below is great. Try to model this one a bit more after that, perhaps.'''<br />
<br />
''The Local Community''<br />
<br />
Such incentive can also come from the local community in which an individual lives. One farmer can see his neighbours changing practices in order to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and therefore may be pressurized into making such changes himself. The climate change crisis can have an immense impact on the agricultural sector as well. For example, a 2°C increase in temperature due to global warming can cause the wheat yields in northern India to reduce by 28% to 68% (if the carbon fertilizer effect is not considered in the predictions.) Hence, community-based awareness regarding climate change issues can motivate the local community to act.<br />
<br />
''The Regional and National Government''<br />
<br />
Government policy can aid the adoption of more responsible agricultural practices. Governments can help to ensure the availability of new technology which can aid the adoption of improved agricultural practices. These could include the installing better drainage systems for rice cultivators, no-tillage technology, non-emitting fertilizers, biological technology and high-quality feed for livestock management and anaerobic digesters. Subsidies on this new technology could help the common man purchase the necessary technology for the improvement of his agricultural practices. The Government can also educate the public through educational institutions and the media regarding the benefits of implementing responsible agricultural practices. At an international level, Governments can cooperate and eliminate or reduce trade tariffs for goods which would aid responsible agricultural management. Countries may also share knowledge and resources in order to optimize responsible agricultural practices. They may also get together and set a standard for agricultural practices worldwide and thereby pressure other government to meet those standards.<br />
<br />
== Emissions, Regions and Growing Challenges ==<br />
<br />
Increases in this sector’s greenhouse gas emissions are expected along the current upward trend as there is a continuously increasing demand for diverse agricultural products. Additionally, 74% of total agricultural emissions come from 5 groups of mainly non-Annex I countries (as stipulated by the Kyoto Protocol). These countries are predominantly developing countries. The emissions from the agricultural sector are not analogous everywhere- which means that there are big differences in the amount of emissions and the sources of those emissions from place to place. This data suggests that as the developing world’s demand for more food and diverse agricultural products increases- so will the total emissions of greenhouse gases. This can change with definitive reforms and policies to improve contemporary agricultural practices. Otherwise, greenhouse gas emissions from this sector have been projected to increase by up to 60% for non-CO2 emissions by the year 2030.<br />
<br />
== The Economic, Socio-Cultural and Political Opportunities and Risks of Agricultural Management ==<br />
<br />
What are the resources an economy needs to sustain agricultural changes? What can be the political motives and shape of agricultural mitigation policy. What are the economic and political risks of such policy on the country and its citizens.<br />
<br />
The socio-cultural impact of changes in traditional methods of farming. The effect of modernized technology on the farmer. The impact on the agricultural market product. The moral issues: livestock management, abandonment of traditional methods.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==</div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Agricultural_Management&diff=610
Agricultural Management
2008-11-02T23:00:28Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: /* Solutions: the different methods of agricultural management */</p>
<hr />
<div>== The Problem ==<br />
<br />
The agricultural '''sector of the global economy''' employs 40.2% of the world’s labour force. This '''percentage''' is even higher in most of the developing world. 37% of the land mass of the world is being used for agricultural purposes. Today more than 13% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions, including approximately 47% of today’s anthropogenic methane emissions and approximately 84% of today’s anthropogenic nitrous oxide emissions, are due to agricultural practices. Agricultural practices have '''also''' led to widespread deforestation, which has affected natural carbon sequestration. (Carbon sequestration refers to the process whereby carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere.) Agricultural practices that contribute to greenhouse gas emissions include croplands soil emission, rice farming techniques, enteric fermentation, manure emission and carbon emissions from agricultural consumption of fossil fuels.<br />
<br />
[[Image:nial1.jpg|500px]]<br />
<br />
It may seem '''self-'''evident that agricultural practices '''negatively''' impact the delicate balance of our environment. '''Suprisingly,''' awareness regarding greenhouse gas emissions from the agricultural sector'''arose''' only recently. Therefore, measures to mitigate or reduce the effects of this sector on global warming have been only recently conceived and seriously considered.<br />
<br />
== Moving towards Solutions ==<br />
<br />
''In spite of this being a relatively new field, the potential for reducing agriculture stands at 5500-6000 megatons of CO2-equivalent of greenhouse gas reduction per year by the year 2030. To put this figure into perspective, it compares to…'' '''Are you going to fix the previous sentence? It remains incomplete.'''Improving agricultural management with respect to mitigation of greenhouse gases, involves the implementation of practices that aim to make the land more able to sequester carbon dioxide and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Improved agricultural management includes practices such as better cropland and grazing-land management, restoration of degraded lands and cultivated organic soils, livestock management, manure management and agroforestry.<br />
<br />
Much of the contemporary scientific community'''believes''' that mitigation in the agricultural sector is a very challenging process. Additionally, some scientists believe that in comparison to other more achievable mitigation projects such as harvesting wind energy or solar energy, improved agricultural management is much less worth the effort and investment. On the other hand, others believe that improved agricultural management can increase the land’s ability to sequester carbon and therefore offset other emissions from the sector significantly. '''This paragraph is a bit confusing. The phrases "additionally" and "on the other hand" make your point a bit hard to follow. Both sides agree with mitigation, correct?'''<br />
<br />
Therefore it is worth trying to better understand the different methods of responsible agricultural management and their positive impact on reducing greenhouse and improving sequestration. Secondly, one must be aware of the different social levels at which change must be implemented. Thirdly, one must be also aware of the various economic, socio-cultural and political opportunities and risks that arise from agricultural mitigation practices. And lastly, a study of agricultural management and its mitigation potential is incomplete without keeping in mind the differences in how the solutions should be approached in the developed and the developing world.<br />
<br />
== Solutions: ''the different methods of agricultural management'' ==<br />
<br />
''NOTE:'' The potential success of mitigation efforts depends highly upon local factors and thus may succeed better in some regions and not as well in others due to differences in the climate, soil type and the current farming practices. Secondly, the majority of the total mitigation potential from the agricultural sector is from increasing sequestration. This is achieved by the enhancement of carbon sinks. A smaller percentage of the mitigation potential comes from the actual reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.<br />
<br />
Below are options with the aim of mitigating the impact of greenhouse gas emissions from the agricultural sector:<br />
<br />
''Improved Cropland Management''<br />
<br />
The main emission from croplands, and the most significant contributor of emissions in the agricultural sector is Nitrous oxide. Nitrous oxide (N20) is naturally emitted through the processes of nitrification and denitrification of the soil. Nitrogen-based fertilizers also can contribute to an increase in emissions. Since all the content of the fertilizer may not be consumed by the crop, it is thus emitted into the atmosphere. The manner in which the soil is tilled, irrigated and drained also has an impact on the emissions of N20 as well as soil carbon (explain) and fossil fuel carbon dioxide emission.<br />
Options for mitigation include the use of more efficient nitrogen-based fertilizers or switching over to other non-emitting fertilizers. It also includes improved tillage and residue management (''for example the no-tillage cultivation practices in Europe* find example)'' and improved water management. These measures are scientifically proven to help the soil retain its nitrogen, carbon and fossil fuel carbon dioxide content without emitting it into the atmosphere. Such practices also improve the quality of the soil in such a manner that it may begin to sequester carbon dioxide directly from the atmosphere, under the right conditions.*<br />
<br />
''Livestock Management''<br />
<br />
The livestock kept by the agricultural sector play a large role in the emissions of methane. Methane is naturally produced by microbes in the enteric system of ruminant animals like cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats and camels during digestion by the process of fermentation. The methane may be exhaled or eructated by livestock.<br />
Mitigation in this sector can be performed by the adoption of various approaches. Firstly, the quality of the feed for the livestock may be improved with the aim of reducing its ability to ferment and produce methane. Secondly, employing the use of biological technology will reduce the livestock’s enteric system’s ability to emit methane. Thirdly, by increasing the livestock’s per unit output of agricultural products (milk, meat and work), the requirement for livestock will numerically grow slower than previously expected. Hence, the total methane emissions would be reduced at a national level.<br />
<br />
''Livestock Manure Management''<br />
<br />
Manure from livestock produces both methane and nitrous oxide. Methane is produced due to anaerobic decomposition of the manure and nitrous oxide from the nitrification and denitrification of the nitrogen-content of the manure and urine of livestock. The extent of the production of these two compounds depends on factors such as the manner in which the manure is stored or treated, composition of the diet of the livestock and the health of the livestock.****<br />
The most effective manner to manage agricultural manure is the use of an anaerobic digester. Some of these digesters are already in use to improve the sanitary conditions at farms as well as control the odor. Digesters are useful in capturing the methane emitted by manure.<br />
<br />
''Rice-Farming Management''<br />
<br />
Rice is mostly grown in flooded paddy fields throughout most of the world and especially in Asia ''(90% of rice growth)*''. Once the oxygen content of the soil and the floodwater depletes due to aerobic decomposition, anaerobic decomposition begins and methane is produced.<br />
Methane production in rice farms can be reduced through better water management so as to maintain oxygen supply in the water. Also, special fertilizers may be used which prevent the anaerobic process from occurring. Lastly, farmers may give up the flooded paddy method of growing rice and switch to upland farming of rice which does not use as much water and thus anaerobic respiration is negligible.<br />
<br />
''Other solutions''<br />
'''Are you going to add other solutions? I like the ones you have now; good job with your organization and with your succinctness.'''<br />
<br />
== The Scales of Change: ''the different social levels at which change must be implemented'' ==<br />
<br />
''The Individual''<br />
<br />
The most important contributor to the agriculture sector is the unit of the individual and his family. The farmer forms the backbone of the agricultural sector. The farmer may provide agricultural products for his own family, a subsistence local economy or for distribution in commercial markets. The farmer may own his own small plot of land or may co-own large plots of cash crops. He may also just be a landless laborer in a farm. Thus there is a broad spectrum regarding the varying levels of participation of the individual in the agricultural sector around the world. It is important to note that no matter what the influence of the State may be, it is most often the individual’s choice to implement reforms in agricultural practices so as to minimize emissions and maximize sequestration potential. Thus, at the end of the day it is the individual who will carry forward the change towards emissions-responsible agricultural management. This change may involve a change in the traditional manner in which these individuals run their farms. Farmers may also need to make investments into the new technology. Hence, they require incentive to carry out such changes. Knowledge regarding the urgency of the climate crisis and the impact of irresponsible agricultural practices on the environment can be one incentive to switch over to more responsible practices on an individual level.<br />
<br />
''The Local Community''<br />
<br />
Such incentive can also come from the local community in which an individual lives. One farmer can see his neighbours changing practices in order to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and therefore may be pressurized into making such changes himself. The climate change crisis can have an immense impact on the agricultural sector as well. For example, a 2°C increase in temperature due to global warming can cause the wheat yields in northern India to reduce by 28% to 68% (if the carbon fertilizer effect is not considered in the predictions.) Hence, community-based awareness regarding climate change issues can motivate the local community to act.<br />
<br />
''The Regional and National Government''<br />
<br />
Government policy can aid the adoption of more responsible agricultural practices. Governments can help to ensure the availability of new technology which can aid the adoption of improved agricultural practices. These could include the installing better drainage systems for rice cultivators, no-tillage technology, non-emitting fertilizers, biological technology and high-quality feed for livestock management and anaerobic digesters. Subsidies on this new technology could help the common man purchase the necessary technology for the improvement of his agricultural practices. The Government can also educate the public through educational institutions and the media regarding the benefits of implementing responsible agricultural practices. At an international level, Governments can cooperate and eliminate or reduce trade tariffs for goods which would aid responsible agricultural management. Countries may also share knowledge and resources in order to optimize responsible agricultural practices. They may also get together and set a standard for agricultural practices worldwide and thereby pressure other government to meet those standards.<br />
<br />
== Emissions, Regions and Growing Challenges ==<br />
<br />
Increases in this sector’s greenhouse gas emissions are expected along the current upward trend as there is a continuously increasing demand for diverse agricultural products. Additionally, 74% of total agricultural emissions come from 5 groups of mainly non-Annex I countries (as stipulated by the Kyoto Protocol). These countries are predominantly developing countries. The emissions from the agricultural sector are not analogous everywhere- which means that there are big differences in the amount of emissions and the sources of those emissions from place to place. This data suggests that as the developing world’s demand for more food and diverse agricultural products increases- so will the total emissions of greenhouse gases. This can change with definitive reforms and policies to improve contemporary agricultural practices. Otherwise, greenhouse gas emissions from this sector have been projected to increase by up to 60% for non-CO2 emissions by the year 2030.<br />
<br />
== The Economic, Socio-Cultural and Political Opportunities and Risks of Agricultural Management ==<br />
<br />
What are the resources an economy needs to sustain agricultural changes? What can be the political motives and shape of agricultural mitigation policy. What are the economic and political risks of such policy on the country and its citizens.<br />
<br />
The socio-cultural impact of changes in traditional methods of farming. The effect of modernized technology on the farmer. The impact on the agricultural market product. The moral issues: livestock management, abandonment of traditional methods.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==</div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Agricultural_Management&diff=609
Agricultural Management
2008-11-02T22:59:28Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: /* Moving towards Solutions */</p>
<hr />
<div>== The Problem ==<br />
<br />
The agricultural '''sector of the global economy''' employs 40.2% of the world’s labour force. This '''percentage''' is even higher in most of the developing world. 37% of the land mass of the world is being used for agricultural purposes. Today more than 13% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions, including approximately 47% of today’s anthropogenic methane emissions and approximately 84% of today’s anthropogenic nitrous oxide emissions, are due to agricultural practices. Agricultural practices have '''also''' led to widespread deforestation, which has affected natural carbon sequestration. (Carbon sequestration refers to the process whereby carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere.) Agricultural practices that contribute to greenhouse gas emissions include croplands soil emission, rice farming techniques, enteric fermentation, manure emission and carbon emissions from agricultural consumption of fossil fuels.<br />
<br />
[[Image:nial1.jpg|500px]]<br />
<br />
It may seem '''self-'''evident that agricultural practices '''negatively''' impact the delicate balance of our environment. '''Suprisingly,''' awareness regarding greenhouse gas emissions from the agricultural sector'''arose''' only recently. Therefore, measures to mitigate or reduce the effects of this sector on global warming have been only recently conceived and seriously considered.<br />
<br />
== Moving towards Solutions ==<br />
<br />
''In spite of this being a relatively new field, the potential for reducing agriculture stands at 5500-6000 megatons of CO2-equivalent of greenhouse gas reduction per year by the year 2030. To put this figure into perspective, it compares to…'' '''Are you going to fix the previous sentence? It remains incomplete.'''Improving agricultural management with respect to mitigation of greenhouse gases, involves the implementation of practices that aim to make the land more able to sequester carbon dioxide and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Improved agricultural management includes practices such as better cropland and grazing-land management, restoration of degraded lands and cultivated organic soils, livestock management, manure management and agroforestry.<br />
<br />
Much of the contemporary scientific community'''believes''' that mitigation in the agricultural sector is a very challenging process. Additionally, some scientists believe that in comparison to other more achievable mitigation projects such as harvesting wind energy or solar energy, improved agricultural management is much less worth the effort and investment. On the other hand, others believe that improved agricultural management can increase the land’s ability to sequester carbon and therefore offset other emissions from the sector significantly. '''This paragraph is a bit confusing. The phrases "additionally" and "on the other hand" make your point a bit hard to follow. Both sides agree with mitigation, correct?'''<br />
<br />
Therefore it is worth trying to better understand the different methods of responsible agricultural management and their positive impact on reducing greenhouse and improving sequestration. Secondly, one must be aware of the different social levels at which change must be implemented. Thirdly, one must be also aware of the various economic, socio-cultural and political opportunities and risks that arise from agricultural mitigation practices. And lastly, a study of agricultural management and its mitigation potential is incomplete without keeping in mind the differences in how the solutions should be approached in the developed and the developing world.<br />
<br />
== Solutions: ''the different methods of agricultural management'' ==<br />
<br />
''NOTE:'' The potential success of mitigation efforts depends highly upon local factors and thus may succeed better in some regions and not as well in others due to differences in the climate, soil type and the current farming practices. Secondly, the majority of the total mitigation potential from the agricultural sector is from increasing sequestration. This is achieved by the enhancement of carbon sinks. A smaller percentage of the mitigation potential comes from the actual reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.<br />
<br />
Below are options with the aim of mitigating the impact of greenhouse gas emissions from the agricultural sector:<br />
<br />
''Improved Cropland Management''<br />
<br />
The main emission from croplands, and the most significant contributor of emissions in the agricultural sector is Nitrous oxide. Nitrous oxide (N20) is naturally emitted through the processes of nitrification and denitrification of the soil. Nitrogen-based fertilizers also can contribute to an increase in emissions. Since all the content of the fertilizer may not be consumed by the crop, it is thus emitted into the atmosphere. The manner in which the soil is tilled, irrigated and drained also has an impact on the emissions of N20 as well as soil carbon (explain) and fossil fuel carbon dioxide emission.<br />
Options for mitigation include the use of more efficient nitrogen-based fertilizers or switching over to other non-emitting fertilizers. It also includes improved tillage and residue management (''for example the no-tillage cultivation practices in Europe* find example)'' and improved water management. These measures are scientifically proven to help the soil retain its nitrogen, carbon and fossil fuel carbon dioxide content without emitting it into the atmosphere. Such practices also improve the quality of the soil in such a manner that it may begin to sequester carbon dioxide directly from the atmosphere, under the right conditions.*<br />
<br />
''Livestock Management''<br />
<br />
The livestock kept by the agricultural sector play a large role in the emissions of methane. Methane is naturally produced by microbes in the enteric system of ruminant animals like cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats and camels during digestion by the process of fermentation. The methane may be exhaled or eructated by livestock.<br />
Mitigation in this sector can be performed by the adoption of various approaches. Firstly, the quality of the feed for the livestock may be improved with the aim of reducing its ability to ferment and produce methane. Secondly, employing the use of biological technology will reduce the livestock’s enteric system’s ability to emit methane. Thirdly, by increasing the livestock’s per unit output of agricultural products (milk, meat and work), the requirement for livestock will numerically grow slower than previously expected. Hence, the total methane emissions would be reduced at a national level.<br />
<br />
''Livestock Manure Management''<br />
<br />
Manure from livestock produces both methane and nitrous oxide. Methane is produced due to anaerobic decomposition of the manure and nitrous oxide from the nitrification and denitrification of the nitrogen-content of the manure and urine of livestock. The extent of the production of these two compounds depends on factors such as the manner in which the manure is stored or treated, composition of the diet of the livestock and the health of the livestock.****<br />
The most effective manner to manage agricultural manure is the use of an anaerobic digester. Some of these digesters are already in use to improve the sanitary conditions at farms as well as control the odor. Digesters are useful in capturing the methane emitted by manure.<br />
<br />
''Rice-Farming Management''<br />
<br />
Rice is mostly grown in flooded paddy fields throughout most of the world and especially in Asia ''(90% of rice growth)*''. Once the oxygen content of the soil and the floodwater depletes due to aerobic decomposition, anaerobic decomposition begins and methane is produced.<br />
Methane production in rice farms can be reduced through better water management so as to maintain oxygen supply in the water. Also, special fertilizers may be used which prevent the anaerobic process from occurring. Lastly, farmers may give up the flooded paddy method of growing rice and switch to upland farming of rice which does not use as much water and thus anaerobic respiration is negligible.<br />
<br />
''Other solutions''<br />
<br />
== The Scales of Change: ''the different social levels at which change must be implemented'' ==<br />
<br />
''The Individual''<br />
<br />
The most important contributor to the agriculture sector is the unit of the individual and his family. The farmer forms the backbone of the agricultural sector. The farmer may provide agricultural products for his own family, a subsistence local economy or for distribution in commercial markets. The farmer may own his own small plot of land or may co-own large plots of cash crops. He may also just be a landless laborer in a farm. Thus there is a broad spectrum regarding the varying levels of participation of the individual in the agricultural sector around the world. It is important to note that no matter what the influence of the State may be, it is most often the individual’s choice to implement reforms in agricultural practices so as to minimize emissions and maximize sequestration potential. Thus, at the end of the day it is the individual who will carry forward the change towards emissions-responsible agricultural management. This change may involve a change in the traditional manner in which these individuals run their farms. Farmers may also need to make investments into the new technology. Hence, they require incentive to carry out such changes. Knowledge regarding the urgency of the climate crisis and the impact of irresponsible agricultural practices on the environment can be one incentive to switch over to more responsible practices on an individual level.<br />
<br />
''The Local Community''<br />
<br />
Such incentive can also come from the local community in which an individual lives. One farmer can see his neighbours changing practices in order to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and therefore may be pressurized into making such changes himself. The climate change crisis can have an immense impact on the agricultural sector as well. For example, a 2°C increase in temperature due to global warming can cause the wheat yields in northern India to reduce by 28% to 68% (if the carbon fertilizer effect is not considered in the predictions.) Hence, community-based awareness regarding climate change issues can motivate the local community to act.<br />
<br />
''The Regional and National Government''<br />
<br />
Government policy can aid the adoption of more responsible agricultural practices. Governments can help to ensure the availability of new technology which can aid the adoption of improved agricultural practices. These could include the installing better drainage systems for rice cultivators, no-tillage technology, non-emitting fertilizers, biological technology and high-quality feed for livestock management and anaerobic digesters. Subsidies on this new technology could help the common man purchase the necessary technology for the improvement of his agricultural practices. The Government can also educate the public through educational institutions and the media regarding the benefits of implementing responsible agricultural practices. At an international level, Governments can cooperate and eliminate or reduce trade tariffs for goods which would aid responsible agricultural management. Countries may also share knowledge and resources in order to optimize responsible agricultural practices. They may also get together and set a standard for agricultural practices worldwide and thereby pressure other government to meet those standards.<br />
<br />
== Emissions, Regions and Growing Challenges ==<br />
<br />
Increases in this sector’s greenhouse gas emissions are expected along the current upward trend as there is a continuously increasing demand for diverse agricultural products. Additionally, 74% of total agricultural emissions come from 5 groups of mainly non-Annex I countries (as stipulated by the Kyoto Protocol). These countries are predominantly developing countries. The emissions from the agricultural sector are not analogous everywhere- which means that there are big differences in the amount of emissions and the sources of those emissions from place to place. This data suggests that as the developing world’s demand for more food and diverse agricultural products increases- so will the total emissions of greenhouse gases. This can change with definitive reforms and policies to improve contemporary agricultural practices. Otherwise, greenhouse gas emissions from this sector have been projected to increase by up to 60% for non-CO2 emissions by the year 2030.<br />
<br />
== The Economic, Socio-Cultural and Political Opportunities and Risks of Agricultural Management ==<br />
<br />
What are the resources an economy needs to sustain agricultural changes? What can be the political motives and shape of agricultural mitigation policy. What are the economic and political risks of such policy on the country and its citizens.<br />
<br />
The socio-cultural impact of changes in traditional methods of farming. The effect of modernized technology on the farmer. The impact on the agricultural market product. The moral issues: livestock management, abandonment of traditional methods.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==</div>
Mikaela Lefrak
https://mediawiki.middlebury.edu/OpenSourceLearning/index.php?title=Agricultural_Management&diff=608
Agricultural Management
2008-11-02T22:56:35Z
<p>Mikaela Lefrak: /* The Problem */</p>
<hr />
<div>== The Problem ==<br />
<br />
The agricultural '''sector of the global economy''' employs 40.2% of the world’s labour force. This '''percentage''' is even higher in most of the developing world. 37% of the land mass of the world is being used for agricultural purposes. Today more than 13% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions, including approximately 47% of today’s anthropogenic methane emissions and approximately 84% of today’s anthropogenic nitrous oxide emissions, are due to agricultural practices. Agricultural practices have '''also''' led to widespread deforestation, which has affected natural carbon sequestration. (Carbon sequestration refers to the process whereby carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere.) Agricultural practices that contribute to greenhouse gas emissions include croplands soil emission, rice farming techniques, enteric fermentation, manure emission and carbon emissions from agricultural consumption of fossil fuels.<br />
<br />
[[Image:nial1.jpg|500px]]<br />
<br />
It may seem '''self-'''evident that agricultural practices '''negatively''' impact the delicate balance of our environment. '''Suprisingly,''' awareness regarding greenhouse gas emissions from the agricultural sector'''arose''' only recently. Therefore, measures to mitigate or reduce the effects of this sector on global warming have been only recently conceived and seriously considered.<br />
<br />
== Moving towards Solutions ==<br />
<br />
''In spite of this being a relatively new field, the potential for reducing agriculture stands at 5500-6000 megatons of CO2-equivalent of greenhouse gas reduction per year by the year 2030. To put this figure into perspective, it compares to…'' Improving agricultural management, with respect to mitigation of greenhouse gases, involves the implementation of practices that aims to make the land more able to sequester carbon dioxide and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Improved agricultural management includes practices such as better cropland and grazing-land management, restoration of degraded lands and cultivated organic soils, livestock management, manure management and agroforestry.<br />
<br />
Much of the contemporary scientific community thinks that mitigation in the agricultural sector is a very challenging process. Additionally, some scientists believe that in comparison to other more achievable mitigation projects, such as harvesting wind energy or solar energy, improved agricultural management is much less worth the effort and investment. On the other hand, others believe that improved agricultural management can increase the land’s ability to sequester carbon and therefore offset other emissions from the sector significantly.<br />
<br />
Therefore it is worth trying to better understand, firstly, the different methods of responsible agricultural management and their positive impact on reducing greenhouse and improving sequestration. Secondly, one must be aware of the different social levels at which change must be implemented. Thirdly, one must be also aware of the various economic, socio-cultural and political opportunities and risks that arise from agricultural mitigation practices. And lastly, a study of agricultural management and its mitigation potential is incomplete without keeping in mind the differences in how the solutions should be approached in the developed and the developing world.<br />
<br />
== Solutions: ''the different methods of agricultural management'' ==<br />
<br />
''NOTE:'' The potential success of mitigation efforts depends highly upon local factors and thus may succeed better in some regions and not as well in others due to differences in the climate, soil type and the current farming practices. Secondly, the majority of the total mitigation potential from the agricultural sector is from increasing sequestration. This is achieved by the enhancement of carbon sinks. A smaller percentage of the mitigation potential comes from the actual reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.<br />
<br />
Below are options with the aim of mitigating the impact of greenhouse gas emissions from the agricultural sector:<br />
<br />
''Improved Cropland Management''<br />
<br />
The main emission from croplands, and the most significant contributor of emissions in the agricultural sector is Nitrous oxide. Nitrous oxide (N20) is naturally emitted through the processes of nitrification and denitrification of the soil. Nitrogen-based fertilizers also can contribute to an increase in emissions. Since all the content of the fertilizer may not be consumed by the crop, it is thus emitted into the atmosphere. The manner in which the soil is tilled, irrigated and drained also has an impact on the emissions of N20 as well as soil carbon (explain) and fossil fuel carbon dioxide emission.<br />
Options for mitigation include the use of more efficient nitrogen-based fertilizers or switching over to other non-emitting fertilizers. It also includes improved tillage and residue management (''for example the no-tillage cultivation practices in Europe* find example)'' and improved water management. These measures are scientifically proven to help the soil retain its nitrogen, carbon and fossil fuel carbon dioxide content without emitting it into the atmosphere. Such practices also improve the quality of the soil in such a manner that it may begin to sequester carbon dioxide directly from the atmosphere, under the right conditions.*<br />
<br />
''Livestock Management''<br />
<br />
The livestock kept by the agricultural sector play a large role in the emissions of methane. Methane is naturally produced by microbes in the enteric system of ruminant animals like cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats and camels during digestion by the process of fermentation. The methane may be exhaled or eructated by livestock.<br />
Mitigation in this sector can be performed by the adoption of various approaches. Firstly, the quality of the feed for the livestock may be improved with the aim of reducing its ability to ferment and produce methane. Secondly, employing the use of biological technology will reduce the livestock’s enteric system’s ability to emit methane. Thirdly, by increasing the livestock’s per unit output of agricultural products (milk, meat and work), the requirement for livestock will numerically grow slower than previously expected. Hence, the total methane emissions would be reduced at a national level.<br />
<br />
''Livestock Manure Management''<br />
<br />
Manure from livestock produces both methane and nitrous oxide. Methane is produced due to anaerobic decomposition of the manure and nitrous oxide from the nitrification and denitrification of the nitrogen-content of the manure and urine of livestock. The extent of the production of these two compounds depends on factors such as the manner in which the manure is stored or treated, composition of the diet of the livestock and the health of the livestock.****<br />
The most effective manner to manage agricultural manure is the use of an anaerobic digester. Some of these digesters are already in use to improve the sanitary conditions at farms as well as control the odor. Digesters are useful in capturing the methane emitted by manure.<br />
<br />
''Rice-Farming Management''<br />
<br />
Rice is mostly grown in flooded paddy fields throughout most of the world and especially in Asia ''(90% of rice growth)*''. Once the oxygen content of the soil and the floodwater depletes due to aerobic decomposition, anaerobic decomposition begins and methane is produced.<br />
Methane production in rice farms can be reduced through better water management so as to maintain oxygen supply in the water. Also, special fertilizers may be used which prevent the anaerobic process from occurring. Lastly, farmers may give up the flooded paddy method of growing rice and switch to upland farming of rice which does not use as much water and thus anaerobic respiration is negligible.<br />
<br />
''Other solutions''<br />
<br />
== The Scales of Change: ''the different social levels at which change must be implemented'' ==<br />
<br />
''The Individual''<br />
<br />
The most important contributor to the agriculture sector is the unit of the individual and his family. The farmer forms the backbone of the agricultural sector. The farmer may provide agricultural products for his own family, a subsistence local economy or for distribution in commercial markets. The farmer may own his own small plot of land or may co-own large plots of cash crops. He may also just be a landless laborer in a farm. Thus there is a broad spectrum regarding the varying levels of participation of the individual in the agricultural sector around the world. It is important to note that no matter what the influence of the State may be, it is most often the individual’s choice to implement reforms in agricultural practices so as to minimize emissions and maximize sequestration potential. Thus, at the end of the day it is the individual who will carry forward the change towards emissions-responsible agricultural management. This change may involve a change in the traditional manner in which these individuals run their farms. Farmers may also need to make investments into the new technology. Hence, they require incentive to carry out such changes. Knowledge regarding the urgency of the climate crisis and the impact of irresponsible agricultural practices on the environment can be one incentive to switch over to more responsible practices on an individual level.<br />
<br />
''The Local Community''<br />
<br />
Such incentive can also come from the local community in which an individual lives. One farmer can see his neighbours changing practices in order to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and therefore may be pressurized into making such changes himself. The climate change crisis can have an immense impact on the agricultural sector as well. For example, a 2°C increase in temperature due to global warming can cause the wheat yields in northern India to reduce by 28% to 68% (if the carbon fertilizer effect is not considered in the predictions.) Hence, community-based awareness regarding climate change issues can motivate the local community to act.<br />
<br />
''The Regional and National Government''<br />
<br />
Government policy can aid the adoption of more responsible agricultural practices. Governments can help to ensure the availability of new technology which can aid the adoption of improved agricultural practices. These could include the installing better drainage systems for rice cultivators, no-tillage technology, non-emitting fertilizers, biological technology and high-quality feed for livestock management and anaerobic digesters. Subsidies on this new technology could help the common man purchase the necessary technology for the improvement of his agricultural practices. The Government can also educate the public through educational institutions and the media regarding the benefits of implementing responsible agricultural practices. At an international level, Governments can cooperate and eliminate or reduce trade tariffs for goods which would aid responsible agricultural management. Countries may also share knowledge and resources in order to optimize responsible agricultural practices. They may also get together and set a standard for agricultural practices worldwide and thereby pressure other government to meet those standards.<br />
<br />
== Emissions, Regions and Growing Challenges ==<br />
<br />
Increases in this sector’s greenhouse gas emissions are expected along the current upward trend as there is a continuously increasing demand for diverse agricultural products. Additionally, 74% of total agricultural emissions come from 5 groups of mainly non-Annex I countries (as stipulated by the Kyoto Protocol). These countries are predominantly developing countries. The emissions from the agricultural sector are not analogous everywhere- which means that there are big differences in the amount of emissions and the sources of those emissions from place to place. This data suggests that as the developing world’s demand for more food and diverse agricultural products increases- so will the total emissions of greenhouse gases. This can change with definitive reforms and policies to improve contemporary agricultural practices. Otherwise, greenhouse gas emissions from this sector have been projected to increase by up to 60% for non-CO2 emissions by the year 2030.<br />
<br />
== The Economic, Socio-Cultural and Political Opportunities and Risks of Agricultural Management ==<br />
<br />
What are the resources an economy needs to sustain agricultural changes? What can be the political motives and shape of agricultural mitigation policy. What are the economic and political risks of such policy on the country and its citizens.<br />
<br />
The socio-cultural impact of changes in traditional methods of farming. The effect of modernized technology on the farmer. The impact on the agricultural market product. The moral issues: livestock management, abandonment of traditional methods.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==</div>
Mikaela Lefrak